mmm'S^^:-: -.'.■' 



THE RELATION OF 
I APPLIED SCIENCE 

TO 

SUGAR PRODUCTION 
IN HAWAII 




A REPORT COMFILED 
BY THE 

EXFERIAENT STATION 

OF THE 

HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION 



HONOLULU. OCTOBER, 1915 



J^^ 












EXPLANATION OF FRONTISPIECE. 

1. Sugar cane Borer, Rhabdocnemis obsciira (Boisd.). 

2. Larva of Cane Borer. 

3. Pupa of Cane Borer. 

4. Piece of cane showing injury by borer. 

5. Borer in position for oviposition, an egg showing where it has been inserted 

in a cavity eaten into the rind. 

6. Borer larva in situ. 

7. Channel eaten by borer larva 

8. Emergence holes, eaten through the rind by the larva to allow the beetle to 

emerge from the cane when fully developed. 

9. 10. New Guinea Parasite of the cane borer, Ceromasia sphenophori Vill. 

11. Borer larva with the parasite maggots emerging. 

12. Cocoon of borer, showing puparia of jjarasite inside. 



THE RELATION OF 

APPLIED SCIENCE 

TO 

SUGAR PRODUCTION 

IN HAWAII 



A REPORT COMPILED 
BY THE 

EXPERinENT STATION 

OF THE 

HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION 



HONOLULU. OCTOBER, 1915 



'^i^ 



EXPERIMENT STATION 

OF THE 

HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION 



Mr. I-'kank J. Sheridan, 

Special Agent, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. 

Dear Sir: — I transmit herewith a paper entitled, "The Rela- 
tion of Applied Science to Sugar Production in Hawaii." 

This has been prepared with the cooperation of Messrs. Bur- 
gess, Lyon, Norris, Potter and Swezcy of the staff of this Ex- 
periment Station, and is intended in some measure to convey to 
you the information you recjuested of me. 

Respectfully, 

H. P. Ac.EE. 

Director. 

I IdiK.lulu. ( )cti>l)cr 15. l'>15. 






4. 

5: 



CONTEXTS. 

PAGE 

Introduction 11 

An Outline of the Experiment Station Work 17 

Entomology 2)7 

Plant F\athology 43 

Manufacture 54 

Chemistry 61 

Agriculture . . . 71 

Puhlications 80 



The Relation of Applied Science to Sugar 
Production in Hawaii 



INTRODUCTION. 

Hawaii ranks third among the countries supplying cane sugar 
to the markets of the world. Cuba and Java take first and 
second place.* That the output of both Cuba and Java is far in 
excess of that of Hawaii is graphically told by the accompanying 
chart, and is readily accounted for by the more advantageous 
conditions under which the industry in these foreign islands is 
operated. 

It might be concluded at first thought, because these three 
widely separated island localities are to the forefront in catering 
to the demand for cane sugar, that their success is due to some 
favored conditions with which they have been endowed in com- 
mon against the rest of the world lying within equivalent lati- 
tudes. This is not the case. The cultivable areas of Cuba, Java 
and Hawaii are but the smallest fraction of the total frost-free 
tillable areas of the globe. To enter fully into an explanation 
of why the cane sugar industry has attained ascendancy on these 
islands would be to trace the sociological and political upheavals 
that have afifected the decline of cane sugar production, first in 
the countries aiound the Mediterranean, afterwards in Brazil, 
San Domingo, the British West Indies and other districts where, 
to go back to early history, there were promising cane, sugar 
outlooks. It suffices for the present, however, to show that the 
survival of sugar production in Cuba, in Java, and in Hawaii is 
due to separate and distinct causes, for the industries of the three 
districts are built upon totally dissimilar foundations. 

The mainstay of sugar production in Cuba is the abundance of 
cheap lands. 

The mainstay of sugar production in Java is the abundance of 
cheap labor. 

Hawaii has neither cheap lands nor cheap labor. As a substi- 
tute for these she has developed, and must perforce maintain, an 
efficiency which is well ahead of that of her foreign competitors. 

This contention may be emphasized by setting forth a few 
salient facts picturing the position in which the American islands 

* British Indin, wliich would rank fir.st. exports no sugar, and is therefore 
omitted from present consideration. 



12 



I'KODl* TION OF Sl'dAH IX HAWAII, JAVA, AND ClIiA FOR 
T W !•: N T ^■ y !•: a R S— l S9;-5 - 1 9 1 4 . 

IliiwaiiS Java* Cuba t 
Voj,r. Tons (L',(l(m lbs.) Tons (L',(l()() lbs.) Tons (2,000 lbs.) 

1^;,.-, 149,()1'7 (i41,()()9 24S,2(i3 

,; L>L>r)..S'_>S r)S9,0(i3 233,74(5 

7 2.-.l,12(i (i4(i,2S3 33(),S02 

H 229,414 799,208 3S0,o84 

J) 2S2,S07 840,453 340,110 

19(10 2S9,r)44 820,402 70o,320 

I 3()0,(i3S 885,9()0 942,07.") 

._> 3.1.-),()11 988,910 1.101,1173 

3 437,991 ],041,4(i() l,14(i,(i.>4 

4 :".(;7,47.1 1,162,984 1,282,271 

.-, 420,248 1,140,49(1 1,299,347 

. . 429,213 1,177,044 1,573,738 

7 440,(117 ' 1,333,935 1,0()0,37(3 

8 .121,123 1,308,942 1,()<!8,437 

9 535,156 1,374,867 1,988,952 

1910 517,090 1,409,215 1,635,223 

11 5()(),821 l,(il(;,(il4 2,089,962 

12 595,258 1,467,373 2,077,001 

13 546,798 1,482,860 2,863,506 

14 617,038 1.421,098 2,866,006 



S Data for ISa.'S to 1900, inclusive, obtained from Planters' Monthly, 1904, 
p. 492; (lata for 1901 to 1914, inclusive, obtained from Manual of H. S., 1915, 
p. 94. 

•Data for 1895 to 1911, inclusive, obtained from Wiirlcl's Cane .Suirar Indus- 
try, by (ieerliKs, p. 121, recomputed into short tons: data for 1912 to 1914, 
inclusive, from International .Siijrar .Journal, July. 1915, p. AM. 

t I>nta for 1895 to 19i:!, inclusive, obtained from Manual of Hawaiian .Securi- 
ties. 1915, p. 9() — lonu' tons multiplied by 1.](I2:!1-, data for 1911 obtained from 
International Suijar .louriiMl. .Iul\. 1915. p. :141. 



'Sd^ 



^''. 



r 



%. 



The Lahaina or Bourbon, the variety whicli is phiying out in 
certain districts. 



16 

arc i)Iacc(l in uplioldin.^- their chief iii;hi>lry. W c (jUotc from 
(iocrhi,^s. a worhl authority on sugar: 

It is to hr consideiiMl a j^roat ailvaiitaj^e for tho Cubau 

CUBA. iiKliistiy tliat tho ft'itility of the soil allows sujiar i-aiie to be 

tri'ati'ii as tlioiijili it wcri" a vvocil whit-h. oiit-e planted, wants 

haicllv aiiv fuitlicr i-are or treat iiu'iit. " ' 

■ ■ * * « * * 

Hut little i-are is bestowed on the jdanting, and yet the sugar cane 
oiii-e jdanted yields aini)le crops lor years, and that without any manuring 
or tillage to speak of. When in the end the eane is considered too old 
for a further ero[>, and the old stubbles are removed, the same soil when 
jdanted anew will yield again very satisfactory crops for years, and that 
without any rotation of crops, till finally bejng exhausted it will be aban- 
doned and used as ]>asture land. 

After the cane is cut, the stumps are covered with dry leaves to 
prevent too great an evajioration, and owing to the natural moisture of 
the ground and the occasional showers the cane will soon shoot up again, 
and, as a rule, is once more ripe twelve months after the cutting. The 
sugar content of first and second ratoon canes is supposed to be highest, 
while after the second ratoons the yield of cane becomes less. Gener- 
ally five to six ratoons are grown, but very often this number is ex- 
ceeded as circumstances require. A good crop should yield at least 
8U,()()() arrobas per caballeria (()2,()()U lbs. or 27.8 tons per acre), although 
sometimes ]UO,UOU and even KiO, ()()() arrobas are obtained. The average 
cro]i is odjUOU arrobas per caballeria (17.33 tons to the acre). As soon 
as a plot promises no larger a crop than 2(),lH)() arrobas per caballeria 
(say seven tons to the acre) it is usual to plant anew, i)roviding there 
is no lack of labour. Hut when labour is scarce, and it is too late in 
the season to expect a timely harvest from the cane by the following 
crushing season, it is better to keep on the same cane for another year 
as this is more profitable in the end. The same field may happen to yield 
a croj) exceeding 2U,()()0 arrobas, in which case it is kept again for further 
ratoons, so that at the best of times fields may still yield quite satis- 
factory crops without requiring any fresh })lanting, after having been 
cut uninterruj>tedly for 3(1 seasons.'' 

Fi(dd treatment does not amount to mutdi; on some modern estates 
it simply involves cutting and weeding the grass regularly, and going 
with a plough, drawn l)y oxen, between the rows in order to loosen the 
soil after the cutting is done; but even this loosening of the earth is 
often neglected, so that reaping the crop is the only treatment the cane 
]dant!itions regularly witness besides that of planting and weeiiing. " 

Tlie cost pri( e of sugar (Uqiends priniarily on that of the raw 
material and on the percentage it yields; ami, finally, on the exjiense of 
manufacture, packing, and transi)ortation to the harbour. Suppose 100 
arrobas of cane have cost the mill $2.70, and yield li) per cent, of sugar, 
the cost of 1 arroba of sugar in raw material would be .$il.27; suppose 
the cost of manufacture to amount to $0.10 per arroba. and that of 
transportation to .tO.do, then the cost |>rice of sugar delivered in the 
wareliouses on the coast will come to 42 cents per arroba — 7s. lid. ])er 
cwt., not including interest on amortisation, capital and loans, renewal 
of macdiinery, etc. Should all these items be taken into consideration, 
the total cost price will l.e from 2 to 2'/i cents jier lb., being e<|ui\alent 




Tassel of Lahaiiia cane. 



18 

to sis. 4<l. to los. (id. |HM- cwt.. acconliiijr to a miiiil)er of data ol)tained 
in 19(17, by the ('oiiitiiittee of Ways and Means in the United States.'' 
Doulitless .there are estates in wliitli tlie cost price is far less, 
o\vin<r to a favourable situation near the sea, which decreases the trans- 
]iortation e.xpenses. Willett and Gray quoted in I9U) as cost ])rice of 
Cuba suyar at average f. o. b. Cuba 1.85 cents per Ih., and at average 

e. i. f. New York 1.95 cent. They fixed 2 cents per lb. as maximum 

f. 0. b. Cuba cost i)rice, and 1.5 cent per lb. as the minimum. Their 
figures, eonse«iuently, are lower on the whole than those (pioted by the 
manufacturers in 1907." 

The transport cost by railway sometimes forms a considerable 
j.art of the expense; it amounts, for instance, to (50 cents a bag of 325 
Spanish pounds — that is about 0.2 cents per lb., or about nV4d. i>er 
cwt. — for all factories which have goods conveye<l to the coast by the 
Cuba Railway Co.. irrespective of distance." 

'I'lius tuba cnjoNs a low cost of production despite an exten- 
sive and inetlicient system of agriculture. The laxity of Cuban 
methods is strongly indicated by the fact that the area under 
sugar cane in that Tsland is not detinitely known. Such esti- 
mates as are i)ublished are based on dividing the total produc- 
tion of sugar by an assumed yield per acre. As against this 
state of affairs in Cuba, where for practical purposes the cane 
grows wild with little or no cultivation, the industry in Java is 
founded ujjon a most elaborate system of hand culture, for cheap 
labor is a keynote of sugar production in Java. This is clearly 
shown l)y the same auth(jrity whom we have quoted regarding 
Cul)a : 

As .-ompared with most of the other cane-growing colonies, 
JAVA, where land is abundant and cheap, and labour is scarce and 
expensive, Java, with its 30,000,000 inhabitants, wants the land 
badly for the cultivation of articles of food, so that the ground dis- 
])Osable for cane growth becomes costly and very limited. On the other 
hand, this extensive jiopulation offers an ample su[>i)ly of cheap and 
readily accessible labour, which counter-balances the first-mentioned dis- 
advantage. This explains why it is advisable to proceed in Java quite 
dilferently from the manner in whicli they work in Cuba, and why it is 
necessary in Java to obtain ,as much cane, and from the cane as much 
sugar, as possible through intensive tillage, manuring, careful ui)-keep, 
and constant care; whereas in other countries the quantity of cane pro- 
duced ]>y a unit of area does not count so much, as there is an abundance 
of grounil to be got for little money." 

* * * -X- vf ^- ^• 

As the cane grows up it is banked with loose soil, which up to 
that time has been hea]>ed up between the rows. Finally, good care is 
taken by the tim-;" the heavy rains of the westmonsooM arf due that the 
cane is entirely banked up, and stands on fairly high banks, so that the 
rain water can run off instead of being forced to collect round the roots 
of the <'ane. As soon as the cane has rii)ened, whicdi takes from eleven 
to fifteen months according to the kind of cane and the state of the 
weather, it is reaped and then dug out as deep as the root. 



19 

Ratoons, as known in most cane sugar producing countries where, 
in many cases, they are most profitable, are not grown in Java, but 
every year the past year's crop is reaped, and nothing is kept for a 
following harvest. This is due to the fact that the first and following 
ratoons yield so much smaller a crop that, owing to the heavy rent and 
the small amount of disposable land, it becomes an absolute necessity 
to obtain as much cane sugar as possible from the little area of land; 
while labour in Java is so abundant and cheap that it pays well in the 
end to spend more money on labour connected with the yearly planting. 

It is clear that no fixed price of cane can be set down, as the 
cane production per unit of area varies greatly, and the cost of the dif- 
ferent operations for the different parts of the country is not the same 
either. From a great many annual reports of sugar factories we may 
infer, however, that the net cost price of cane in the field — that is, with- 
out cutting and carting wages, but including the items of land rent, 
cutting, cultivation, manuring and wages — amounts to 4d. to 5d. per 
I)icul, or from 5s. 4d. to fis. lid. per ton. Higher and lower figures may 
occur, but most of the data at our disposal for 1909 vary between these 
two values. 

In the Archhf voor <lc Jani SiiikrrindK.strir, 1908, on page 830, we 
find the average cost of cane for 1901-1905, on one of the best managed 
sugar estates in Java, specified as follows: 

£ s. d. £ s. d. 

European employes 2,620 

Native labour 1,561 

Rent of land 3,515 

Cultural expenses 15,330 

Watching expenses 425 

Manure 5,943 

Premiums for killing vermin 430 

Disinfection of tops 70 



Imj)ort of cuttings 590 

Various expenses 166 

Seedling nurseries in the plain 13 



s. 


d. 


) 18 


4 


L 





) 10 





) 11 


s 


) 8 


4 


i 8 


4 


) 13 


4 


) 15 





) 13 


4 


) 18 


4 


■ 15 






29,898 



895 

215 

4,725 


6 
16 

8 


8 
8 
4 


35,734 


16 


8 



Various costs for bridges and roads. 
Mountain nurseries 



The average planted area amounted for those years to 1,345 bouws= 
2,358 acres, so that the total cost of sugar cane in the field per bouw 
amounted to £26 lis. 8d. (£15 3s. Id. per acre, or 4s. 9d. per picul cane 
(6s. 7d. i)er metric ton), not including interest, management, taxes, and 
other expenses. 

The prime cost of sugar, first of all depends on the class which is 
produced, on the cost price and the quality of the cane, on the distance 
lietween the factory and the harbour, and also on the factory installa- 
tion. Generally speaking, it may be taken that the manufacture of 
superior sugar costs Is. more than the brown sugar, basis 96.5, and that 



20 



YEAR /896 



/9/4^ 




Kfferencc is oftt'ii iiindf to the impetus which annexation gave the susar industry 
of Ilawaii. Jt is inUT-stinj: to conii)aic this witli the advance in su^ar pro- 
duction in Cnl.a folh.win- the Spanish-American War. which brought both 
stable government and trade reciurocit v to that island. 



21 

of sugar Nos. 18 — 20 (id. more per piciil — that is allowing for the ilimiii- 
ished reiidement. But these figures, of course, vary. 

H. 's. Jacob i)ublished at the same time a specification of the prime 
cost of sugar, estimated for 212 factories during the years 1899 — 1902, 
and arrived at the following figures: 

Per Picul. Per Ton. 

1899 f 5.50 £7 10s. 8d. 

1890 f 6.27 £8 lis. lid. 

1901 f ti.24 £S lis. Od. 

1902 f 5.59 £7 13s. 2d. 

This includes interest on Hoating capital, but no interest or mort- 
gage on fixed capital, which really should be added to be exact. 
"The amount of £7 lOs. 8d is specified by him as follows: 



Per Pieul. 

Emjiloyes f 0.50 

Agricu"lture f 2.00 

Transport of cane f 0.60 

Fuel f 0.07 

Wages f 0.14 

Sundries f 0.07 

Packing f 0.16' 

Transi^ort of sugar f 0.31 

Maintenance f 0.32 

Diverse exj^enses f 0.17 

Commission f 0.27 

New machiuerv f 0.59 

Interest . . . ." f 0.30 

Total f 5.50 



Per Ton. 



£0 


12s. 


5d. 


£2 


15s. 


8i4d 


£0 


16s. 


6i^d 


£0 


Is. 


lid. 


£0 


3s. 


lOd. 


£0 


Is. 


lid. 


£0 


4s. 


4iAd 


£0 


8s. 


7d. 


£0 


8s. 


9d. 


£0 


4s. 


9d. 


£0 


7s. 


6d. 


£0 


16s. 


2d. 


£0 


8s. 


2 Mid 


£7 


10s. 


Sd. 



The yearly reports of the different joint stock companies give 
various figures as the cost price of sugar on the several estates, which 
vary so much as regards the class of sugar, the distance from the sea- 
port, the interest on capital due, the produce, etc., that it is impossible 
to quote any fixed amount as cost price. Generally speaking, we may 
consider H. 's. Jacob's figures still to hold good, so that the cost price of 
the sugar Nos. 11 — 13 D. S. comes to f 5.50 per picul or £7 10s. 8d. 
per long ton, including all expenses except interest on the capital. 

Cuba is, of course, the greatest competitor with American do- 
mestic production, but the competition of Java is not to be over- 
looked on account of its indirect nature. Until recently Java 
sent considerable amounts of sugar to the American markets, in 
some years quantities amounting to more than half the produc- 
tion in Hawaii. It is interesting, therefore, to examine certain 



* f stands for florin or guilder = Is. 8d. 



97 



conditions hcarin.i,^ u])on siii,'ar production in Java. Cuba and 
Hawaii. 

The climate of lava is the most Iroiiical and lience tlie most 
advantageous for cane culture of the three localities. The aver- 
age temi)erature of Java is given at 78.7; that of Havana, Cuba, 
as 75.3 ( the average temi)erature of the cane belt of Cuba is 
warmer than that of Havana); that of Honolulu as 72> (the 
climate of Honolulu, on the other hand, is not so cool as the 
average of the Hawaiian cane areas). 

In the matter of to]iography neither ihc Cul)a nor the Java 
planters have to conicnd with the almost mountainous condi- 
tions which characterize a large proportion of Hawaii's cane 
areas. 

In point of possible labor supi)ly it is interesting to compare 
the ])0])ulations of the three localities. l''or each ton of sugar 
produced in Hawaii there is a po])ulation of but 0.36. Although 
in Cuba scarcity of labor is frequently counted a great dieck to 
future development, Cuba has. in fact, more than twice the pop- 
ulation-per-ton-of-sugar-produced that Hawaii has: 0.85 against 
0.36. Turning to the immense population of Java it is found 
that there is a i)oi)ulation of 20.55 for each ton of sugar pro- 
duced. 



POPULA T/O/V 

PEfii 

Ton o/= Sugar 





Z0.55 



Sciiri'it.v of l!il)or i.s often cited as a drawback to the de- 
vfl())>iiu'nt of Cuba's sugar industry, yet Cuba has, in 
fiict, more than twice t)ie i)oi)ulntion perton-of-sugar- 
produced tliat Hawaii lias. In .lava tlic abundance of 
i-lieap labor is a mainstay of sugar production. 



If we study these figures in imcrse ratio it is a])parcnt that 
Hawaii annually ])ro(luces 5,500 pounds of sugar ])er unit of 
population, while C"uba ])roduces 2..W) pounds, and Java but 
97 pounds per unit of ])opuIation. 



It appears, therefore, that wherever natural advantages are 
concerned, Java and Cuba are in the lead, but that in questions of 
efficiency Hawaii takes first place. 

This is further exemplified in studying the production of sugar 
per acre of land. Hawaii produces 5 tons of sugar per acre; 
Java, with her superior climate and unlimited supply of labor, 
4.5, while Cuba produces but about 2 to 2.5 tons of sugar per 
acre.* ( )f course, if we compare the number of months that have 
been occupied in growing these crops, the foregoing figures are 
subject to alteration. It takes all but two full years to make a cane 
crop in Hawaii, while in Java the time varies from eleven to 
fifteen months. Cuba usually harvests a crop after an average 
growth of twelve to fifteen months. But the climatic conditions 
that necessitate such a long cropping period in Hawaii are a dis- 
tinct disadvantage, so that a comparison of yields prorated on a 
unit of cropping time would be distinctly misleading as a gauge 
of the quality of the agriculture in the three districts. 

An interesting comparison has been drawn between the inten- 
sive agriculture of Hawaii and mainland standards by Dr 
Arthur L. Dean. This is given as follows : 

"The imi)rove(l arable land in Hawaii is more intensively culti- 
vated than in any states in the Union. Selecting New York, Illinois, 
California, Louisiana and the Island of Porto Rico as representative of the 
various agricultural regions of the United States, and using the statistics of 
the Thirteenth Census, one may compute the average value of the crops per 
acre of improved agricultural land. In each case the total value of the 
crop for the year 1909 is divided by the total acreage of improved agri- 
cultural land, giving thereby the average value of the crops per acre. 
The results, coin]>ared with the value for Hawaii obtained in the same 
manner, are shown as follows: 

California $13.44 

Illinois 13.27 

Louisiana 14.66 

New York 14.09 

Porto Eico 16.28 

Hawaii 93.56 

» ^f " « * * * 

"There is a distinction sharply to be drawn between the production 
of high crop values and the making of large profits. Hawaii produces 



* In arriving at this figure, even approximately, we encounter the difficulty pre- 
sented by there being no definite data as to the cane area of Cuba. Geerligs gives 
829,035 acres as a rough estimate of the area for the crop of 1908-09, but states 
that "allowance must be made for extensive pastures in use for draught cattle, 
arable land for the cane planters, and the barren tracts of land in between * * * 
which results in more than 1,605,500 acres.'' In an attempt to arrive at the 
present area under cane we have corresponded with Willett & Gray, who .supply 
us with the figure 2,500,000 acres. To use their figure would bring the Cuba yield 
to about one ton of sugar per acre, which is low, so we have assumed that the 
Willett & Cxray figure corresponds to the 1,605.500 offered by Geerligs. If we 
assume 1,000,00,0 acres actually under cane, the average output for the last six 
years would bring the per acre yield to 2.;!. 



Ill point of ni-fii the Yellow Caledonia is \Uf most cxti 
sivi'ly ciiltivatnl vai'icty, oci-ui).viiig sonu- 1 111, mill acres. 



25 

much per acre — but much goes into the production. On irrigated planta- 
tions the cost of water alone will ecpial the total value of an acre of 
wheat, and on plantations where water must be pumped it will amount 
to two or three times as much." 

# -s- * « * * * 

"The Thirteenth Census gives Hawaii's population as 191,909 and 
the area of improved agricultural land as 305,053 acres. During the ten 
years between the census of 1900 and that of 1910 the population in- 
creased 1^4.(1 per cent, the area of improved land 3.6 per cent. On the 
basis of the 1910 Census we had 1.586 acres of improved land per 
person. 

s ***** « 

' ' If an agricultural state like North Dakota were supporting as large 
a population per acre of improved farm land its population would num- 
ber 12,90(1,000 instead of the actual number of 577,056. In other words, 
Hawaii supports twenty-two times as large a population as North Da- 
kota per acre of improved agricultural land." 

******* 

"The unique position of Hawaii in the production of wealth per 
acre is due primarily to the most highly developed, organized, and long 
continued apjdication of science and business efficiency to be found in 
any large agricultural industi'y. 

As a part of the modern business system responsible for the 
development of the sugar industry in Hawaii, there are certain 
matters that the plantations, acting through their Association, 
have delegated to a central organization, their Experiment Sta- 
tion, which is, in fact, but an arm of the industry itself. 

The fight against insect enemies and the control of fungus 
diseases are matters that lend themselves logically to cooperative 
action on the part of the planters. Before these branches of 
work were inaugurated an institution had been formed as early 
as 1895 to study the island soils and the methods of their treat- 
ment. This work has grown with the general adoption of im- 
proved methods until today the plantations have assigned to 
their Experiment Station numerous commissions which in some 
way or other associate the Station with the greater part of the 
activities of the industry. 

The development of the use of commercial fertilizers and irri- 
gation water, the use of superior varieties of cane, the control 
of insect pests by their natural enemies or parasites introduced 
from foreign countries, the study of cane diseases and insect 
pests occurring in other parts of the world and the rigid quaran- 
tine guarding against their introduction, the control of loca' 
diseases through selected plantings, the development of original 
methods of agriculture to suit unique conditions, the thorough 
chemical and engineering control of the factories — in brief, defi- 
nite attention to fundamental principles, is what singles out sugar 
]iroduction in Hawaii as a striking example of science applied to 
industry. 




'I'lif iiiihiitc hi'imI from llicsi- pluiii-liki- tiisscls Imvr served tor tin- i)ri)|)iiK:i''<"i <>' 
innri- lliiiii 15. (KM! new viirii'tics of cnur by the K.\i)crinii'iit Stntioii. 



AN OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION 

WORK. 

ENTOMOLOGY. 

Insect Enemies. 

Study of the Habits and Life History of Sugar-Cane Insects; 
Anomala, or root grub. 
Bud Moth. 
Cane Borer. 

Cut Worms or Army Worms. 
Leaf-hopper. 
Leaf-roller. 
Mealy bugs. 

Miscellaneous insects of minor importance. 
Introduction of beneficial insects or parasites. 

This work includes the search for these insects in foreign 
parts, and the breeding of colonies for distribution. 

Leaf-hopper parasites, brought from Australia and 

Fiji. 
Hornfly parasites, brought from Europe. 
Anomala parasites, brought from Japan and Formosa. 
Cane Borer parasites (Tachinid flies), brought from 

New Guinea. 
Miscellaneous parasites of minor importance intro- 
duced from various parts of the world. 
Plan tat i 0)1 Inspections. 

General inspections periodically to ascertain general entomo- 
logical conditions. 
Special inspections whenever conditions require investiga- 
tion, or in connection with the work of spreading parasites 
or beneficial insects. , 

Determination and Classification of Insects. 

Determination of specimens sent in for identification, or col- 
lected by the entomologists. 
Systematic work on classification and description of new 
forms. 
Maintenance of Insect Collections. 

Economic insects; injurious and beneficial. 
Endemic; or nati\'e insects. 

Foreign ; collected on exploration trips for introductions of 
beneficial insects. 



4 



I)i'iiu'riirii 1135 — a foreipn seedling wliicli lias 
favor un Ilawiiiian pliiiitations. 



29 

PLANT PATHOLOGY. 

Studies of su(/ar cane diseases and means for their control : 

Fiji disease. (A disease which thns far has not entered the 

islands.) 
Iliau. 

Leaf-spot diseases. 
Eye-spot. 
Ring, Spot, etc. 
Pahala hlight. 

Root-rot or "Lahaina disease." 
Sereh. 

Yellow-stripe disease. 

Other minor diseases, and diseases of plants other than sugar 
cane, such as Pineapple diseases and Stem-rot of Taro and 
many others as listed under "Crops other than Sugar 
Cane." 
Economic Fungi. 

The study of fungi of benefit to the industry, viz : 

Entomogenous fungi, or fungi found useful in control- 
ling insects. 
Yeasts used in the fermentation of sugars into alcohol — 
of interest in view of the proposed manufacture of 
denatured alcohol from molasses. 

CHEMLSTRY. 

Fertilisers. 

Chemical control work consisting of sampling and anlyzing 
the commercial fertilizers purchased by the plantations, as 
a check on the manufacturers' guarantees of their compo- 
sition. 
Soils. 

Investigation of the types of soils found on the plantations. 
Laboratory and lysimeter studies of the effect of commer- 
cial fertilizers and other manures on dift'erent soils. 
Miscellaneous. 

General analytical work on samples submitted by the planta- 
tions. 

MANLTFACTURE. 

Factory inspections to check the chemical control of the factory 
chemists, report on the manufacturing operations, and sug- 
gest possible improvements. 



31 

Special iiiz'csfijjatioiis of specific problems on requests from plan- 
tations. 
Weekly Mill Reports. 

A sheet is published weekly presenting a compilation of the 
data of the chemical control of manufacture of each of 
the plantations. 
Annual Synopsis of Mill Data. 

A similar publication presenting the season's manufacturing 
results of each factory. 
JJ'hite Sugar Making. 

The study of methods to manufacture white sugar. 
Miscellaneous. 

The study of various problems connected with the manufac- 
ture of sugar. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Commercial Fertilisers. 

Experiments with regard to use of fertilizers, embracing tests to 
determine : 

The proper composition for maximum yields under dif- 
ferent conditions of climate and soil. 

The proper methods of applying fertilizer under different 
conditions of climate and soil. 

The relative response of different varieties of cane to 
given quantities of fertilizers. 

The effect of commercial fertilizers on the quality of the 
juice of the cane. 

Culti7'ation. 

Agricultural implements are studied with respect to their com- 
parative merits and suitability to varied conditions. 

Methods of cultivation of the different plantations and of foreign 
cane countries are studied and compared as to their respec- 
tive merits. 

Conservation of organic zcastes. particularly the refuse of the 
cane crop, is studied with regard to arriving at the most 
economical means to be employed in this form of soil im- 
provement. 

Green Manuring '•a'itli Legumes. 

Introduction and testing of new leguminous plants to find those 
suited to the different localites. 



11-10!). This is prol.iilily llic 
wliich ilu- Kxpi'iiiiii'iit 



lost ])i-t)iiiisiiiK seedliiiR variety 
■;tali(in lins i)i'()i)agat('d. 



33 

Tests to determine practical methods of introducing rotation 

cropping, or companion cropping with legumes into sugar 

cane agriculture. 
Experiments to determine the benefit resulting from rotation or 

companion cropping with legumes that ha\'e proved suitable 

to the Island conditions. 

Irrigation. 

Experiments. 

To determine the comparative water requirements of dif- 
ferent varieties of cane. 
To determine the value of withholding the irrigation water 
for varying periods on increasing the sugar content of 
the cane. 

Liuiiiig. 

Tests to determine the benefit from liming: (1) acid soils; (2) 

non-acid soils having low lime content. 
Tests to compare the relati\e value of quick lime and coral-sand 

for the above purposes. 

Substations. 

U\jipio Siibstatioji. 

An area of 13.^ acres is devoted to field experiments under 
practical plantation conditions : 
Experiments in varieties. 
Experiments in cultivation. 
Experiments in fertilization. 
Experiments in conserving organic wastes. 
Experiments in irrigation. 
Plantation Substations. 

Experiments on the above subjects are placed on the planta- 
tions to note the efl:'ects of Aariations of cellmate and soil 
on difl:'erent soil treatments. 

UTILIZATION OF BV-PRODUCTS. 

Paper Making. 

Study of the possibilities of bagasse as a paper stock. 
Denatured AlcoJiol. 

Study of the practicability of usii:g waste molasses for this 
purpose, and recovering: — 

Potash from the waste liquors. 




Tl"' sUK'-.r .„„.. root «nil. or anonu.la I„.,.tl,". A s.-anl, for „arM.sit,.s to 

is now uiuler why. 



iMlrol it 



35 

Beef Prod lief ion. 

Study of the practicaljility of utilizing the cane tops as cattle 
food and maintaining a beef industry as a side line to 
sugar production. 

CROPS OTHER THAN SUGAR CANE. 

Legiuniiioiis erops for green manuring. After testing several 
hundred legumes some four or five were found to give promise 
under Hawaiian conditions. The seed of these are not to be had 
in the world markets. With the cooperation of the Federal Ex- 
periment Station plans are fostered to have the homesteaders 
grow this seed to supply the plantations. 

Pineapples. The diseases of the pineapple have met atten- 
tion since 1908. A publication dealing" with the pineapple dis- 
eases was issued in 1910. At the present time, through an 
agreement with the Hawaiian Pineapple Packers' Association, a 
complete survey of the scientific problems of the pineapple in- 
dustry is under way. 

Forestry. Fungus diseases of the Eucalyptus and other forest 
trees have been studied. An investigation of the dying out of a 
Maui forest was at one time undertaken. 

Miseellaneoiis erops and plants. The staft' of Plant Pathol- 
ogists has met more outside calls for work on miscellaneous crops 
than the other departments. No other institution in Hawaii 
maintains a department of plant pathology. The diseases of 
many plants have been studied and reported upon. These in- 
clude, aside from those mentioned above, the following plants : 
the potato, the sweet potato, taro, banana, orange, papaia, peach, 
mango, alligator pear, date palm, alfalfa, cotton, vanilla, pepper, 
oats, barley, wheat, corn, litchi nut, and ornamental plants such 
as the hibiscus, rose, carnation, etc. 




Till- li-iif')io|i)i('r tlircKti'iifd llic iiirlustry witli niin until clu'rkfcl l)y tlic iiitrodiu-- 

tion (if pariisitL's. 



ENTOMOLOGY. 

Hy ( ). H. SwEZEv. 

The Entomological Division of the Experiment Station of the 
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association was organized in 1904. 
The factor most prominent in making the necessity for ento- 
mological work hy the Experiment Station was the presence of 
the sugar cane leaf-hopper, prevalent throughout the cane fields 
of the Hawaiian Lslands. This insect had heen noticed a few 
years previously in some of the plantations. It had spread to all 
of them, and had occasioned great damage in many; in fact, was 
beginning to cause grave concern among the sugar planters, as it 
looked for a time as though the industry was threatened with 
ruin. 

The situation being urgent, the Association organized and 
equipped a department and secured a staft" of entomologists to 
carry on entomological work. 

Naturally, as the leaf-hopper was the primal cause for this 
beginning of entomological work, the entomologists set to work 
on investigation of its habits, distribution in the Islands, damage 
to cane, methods of control, etc. At the outset it was rec- 
ognized that the leaf-hopper was a foreign insect that must 
have somehow become introduced to the Hawaiian cane fields — 
now considered to have been brought about through the impor- 
tation of cane cuttings which contained the eggs of the leaf- 
hopper, some of which survived the voyage, then hatched and in 
due time became established at one or more sugar cane districts 
of the Islands, from which they had become dispersed almost 
entirely throughout the plantations before attracting any at- 
tention. 

Investigation of the ])robable home, or native country, of the 
leaf-hopper, pointed towards Australia. The insect was not 
known to be a pest there, however, and so it was thought that 
there probably were natural enemies there which were respon- 
sible for this. Accordingly, two of the entomological staff went 
to Australia to make a study of the leaf-hopper there, and of its 
natural enemies, with the purpose of attempting to introduce the 
latter to Hawaii, if any were found. 

As a result of this work, many natural enemies were found, 
and several species were finall}', after various attempts, success- 
fully introduced and established. These, in a few years after 
being established and widely dispersed, succeeded in checking the 
leaf-hopper to such an extent that the annual loss was reduced 




COK-C.-B.Hff. 



hiiilyliirds iirc ;i«'tivf in supprcssiii;; the siisrur rune !ii)liis 



39 

from $3,000,000, as estimated in 1904. to an almost negligible 
amount for the most of the cane-growing districts. In some 
places there is still at times considerable injury by the leaf- 
hopper, but not anywhere near the amount resulting formerly, 
and occurring only in limited areas. 

Of the parasites introduced from Australia for the sugar cane 
leaf-hopper, the most beneficial were egg-parasites ; and of these 
the most important one, Parciiiagrus optabilis, belongs to the 
family Mymaridae. It is so small as to escape the notice of all 
except the entomologists who are familiar witli its appearance 
and habits, and know where to look for it. It is to be found on 
the leaves of sugar cane which contain leaf-hopper eggs, where 
it is busily searching for the egg clusters and depositing its own 
eggs in the -eggs of the leaf-hopper. The parasite larva con- 
sumes the contents of the leaf-hopper egg in growing to matu- 
rity, and completes its transformation to the adult stage within 
the host egg, eventually emerging as an adult insect in the place 
of the young leaf-hopper which would otherwise have hatched 
from the egg. 

The length of life-cycle of the parasite is about three weeks, 
which is about one-half that of the leaf-hopper. It is thus 
enabled to breed and increase more rapidly than its host, and 
becomes an effective check on the latter. This parasite has been 
the most important factor in the control of the sugar cane leaf- 
hopper ; but the other introduced egg-parasites, as well as several 
native parasites, predaceous insects, and spiders, have played 
some part. 

The staff' of entomologists engaged for the above work has 
been maintained with some changes in the personnel, the num- 
ber at any one time varying from four to six. 

While engaged in the above work with the leaf-hopper and its 
parasites, investigations were also being made on other sugar 
cane pests in Hawaiian cane fields whenever time or convenience 
l)ermitted. JMuch information of this character was obtained 
at the time of periodical inspections conducted for the purpose 
of keeping informed on leaf-hopper conditions and the distribu- 
tion of the parasites. Special inspections were also frequently 
made to investigate special outbreaks of some pest. 

Besides the leaf-hopper, other imi)ortant sugar cane pests in 
Hawaii are the weevil borer, leaf-roller, mealybugs, cane aphis, 
bud-moth, armyworms and cutworms, mole cricket, and a few 
minor ones that are generally distributed, while another which 
has but a small local distribution is the cane grub, or Anomala 
beetle. Nearly all are foreign insects that have become estab- 
lished here through the channels of commerce before the present 




^ 




i 



A iiiiiKir ,-„i,r |M Nl iIk' su'j::,,- cni.- 



imc-mIv I, hi; ,111.1 Miiiir i.f i|.s 



l> nalur:il I'lu'iiiit 



41 

efficient system of quarantine inspection was instituted. Of these, 
the most work has heen done on the cane borer. This pest has 
been present in the Islands for at least fifty years. It has done 
an enormous amount of damage. Sometimes whole fields would 
have as much as half the cane injured, and a third or a quarter 
was often the case. It is impossible to estimate vVith any accu- 
racy the extent of damage done, but a conservative estimate 
would be two per cent, which, during the past decade, would 
have amounted to nearly one million dollars annually. 

Several years were spent by one member of the entomological 
stafi:' in searching for natural enemies of the cane borer, and 
eft'orts toward their introduction to Hawaii. Finally, in 1910, 
a species of Tachinid fly, which was found to be parasitic on the 
same borer in sugar cane in New Guinea, was successfully in- 
troduced in Hawaii. For two years colonies of this fly were 
bred at the Station and distributed to the sugar plantations. The 
parasite readily became established and rapidly dispersed through- 
out the plantations, reducing the borers so that they are no longer 
to be considered a serious pest. 

As an example of the benefits resulting from the checking of 
the borer by the introduced parasite, on one plantation the yield 
of sugar per acre was increased by over two tons. This would 
be 2,000 tons on a plantation harvesting 1,000 acres annually, 
and would mean $150,000 with sugar at ^75 per ton, or more, 
according to how much higher is the price per ton. Not all plan- 
tations were benefited to this extent, as most were not so badly 
infested by borers as this one was formerly, but the total saving 
to the sugar industry of the Islands would amount to a good 
many thousand dollars annually. 

From the beginning, there has been at least one member of 
the staff almost constantly traveling in some foreign country in 
search of beneficial insects that might be introduced. Trials 
have been made with cpite a number that have failed. A few of 
minor importance have succeeded. At the present time eft'orts 
are being made to find and introduce parasites for white grubs, 
the larvae of Anomala beetle. 

As time has allowed, systematic work has been done on collec- 
tions of insects studied in foreign countries when searching for 
desirable parasites. Some of the results have been i)ublished in 
bulletins. 

The entomological staff" has built up a large collection of Ha- 
waiian insects, including those of economic importance to other 
crops, as well as those of sugar cane, and any and all insects of 
interest faunisticly, or otherwise. These are necessary for ref- 
erence in many wavs, as in determining specimens sent in from 




'I'll' iii-in.\' uiMiii .iiiil its n:iliu-:il ciici 



43 

the plantations, material for systematic study, and ability to rec- 
ognize any new pest that may at any time turn up. Considerable 
of the material collected by members of the staff when engaged 
in parasite investigation in foreign countries has been mounted 
and arranged in the insect cabinets. Much of this has been 
worked up, and more will be as opportunity permits. In these 
cabinets are several hundred "types"; that is, the specimen of 
insect from which the species was originally described. The col- 
lections are the more valua1)le on this account. 



PLANT PATHOLOGY. 

Bv H. L. Lyon. 



A solution of sugar is the best all-around culture medium for 
the cultivation of fungi. It seems to be the one food material 
on which the majority of fungi can live and flourish. Plain 
cane juice' with its natural impurities better suits the needs of 
fungi than does refined sugar or the chemically pure product. In 
fact, all fungi prefer glucose and other invert sugars to sucrose, 
for they almost always convert sucrose into invert sugars before 
they can actually feed upon it. 

It is rather to be expected, therefore, that the sugar cane plant, 
with its store of choice, rich juices, will, from time to time, be 
severely attacked by fungi which learn some method whereby 
they can force an entrance to its tissues. This conclusion is 
amply supported by evidence derived from the history of the 
sugar industry in other countries. 

In 1841 a mysterious "fungoid" disease appeared in the sugar 
cane of Mauritius and Reunion and almost accomplished the com- 
plete elimination of the crop. In 1882 the now famous sereh 
disease appeared in west Java, and in the course of five years 
spread over the entire island, bringing their sugar industry to the 
verge of destruction. In the early nineties the so-called "rind- 
disease" practically eliminated the Bourbon cane from the West 
Indies. The sugar planters in that region had grown the Bour- 
bon for upwards of a hundred years, and it ranked as their very 
best variety. 

The cane variety known in Hawaii as Lahaina is identical to 
the Bourbon of the West Indies. For many years it had been 




iNc^r 



:.^ 



A^ 



SiiKiii- ciinc iilTi-i'tcd witli iliiiu. ( Sco foot note on piiffe 45.) 



45 

the favorite cane \ariety in tl.ese Islands, and where it can l)e 
grown successfully it is still an excellent variety. About 1900 
the Lahaina cane on the Island of Hawaii began to show evi- 
dences of disease, and in the course of five years it failed com- 
pletely on that island and had to be abandoned for other varieties. 

A troublesome cane disease had been recognized in Hawaii 
since the inauguration of the local sugar industry. 1 his disease, 
christened lliau by the natives, was known to be responsible for 
great losses each year; and, in fact, one of the plantations of 
early days was forced to close down because of the continued 
heavy losses caused by this disease. 

The Hawaiian Sugar Planters were quite familiar with the 
serious conditions into which the sugar industries of Java, the 
West Indies and other countries had been thrown by the advent 
of epidemic diseases among their canes, and, with their own La- 
haina cane failing and lliau causing conspicuous losses in their 
fields, they founded a department of plant pathology in their Ex- 
periment Station in 1905 to aid in coping with problems of this 
nature. 

The investigations conducted by this department have shown 
that there are, at the present time, nine dilTerent fungi which are 
active parasites on the cane i)lant in Hawaii. Then, in addition, 
there are two microscopic round-worms or nematodes which 
attack the living roots of the cane. Besides the disorders caused 
by these parasites, our cane is also subject to three serious dis- 
eases for which no organic cause has as yet been detected. In 
addition to the disease-producing organisms, there are a great 
number of saprophytes which live in intimate relation to the cane 
plant and require careful watching. 

ILIAU. 

Of the fungus diseases, iliau is undoubtedly the most serious 
and will serve to illustrate the ]M-ob!ems preseiited by a cane 
disease. 

The name iliau is a Hawaiian expression, meaning "tight skin" 
or "hide bound." It very aptly describes the one conspicuous 

Fig. 1. A cane shoot, showing a typical case of iliau. The outer leaves are 
already dead and dry, while the leaf-sheaths are firmly cemented together into 
a hard, unyielding " case. The stem tip is so securely bound up by the 
hardened leaf-bases that it will be unable to make any further growth. 

Pig. 2. A cane .shoot which managed to grow away from the disease, although at 
one time badlv affected. The iliau fungus actually penetrated the stem and 
produced severe wounds, which, although not deep, would, nevertheless, render 
the stem so weak and brittle at this point that it would probably be unable 
to sustain its own weight when fully grown. 

Fig. 3. A short piece from the stem of a shoot which succumbed to iliau afti'r it 
had made some two feet of stick. The black dots on the iiitenuide are the 
Melanconium pustules of the iliau fungus. 



46 

symptom of the disease, wliieli is a l)iiulir.g of the leaf bases into 
a ti^dit. imvieldinj^ jacket abotit the stem. Tlie cane shoot illus- 
trated on ])a!4e 44. b'ij^-. 1. is in the condition commonly recognized 
as a typical case of iliau. Ihe outer leaves are dead and dry, 
while the leaf-sheaths are firmly cemented together into a hard, 
unyielding case. The stem-tip is so securely bound up by the 
hardened leaf-bases that it will be unable to make any further 
growth and must eventually die as a result. The leaf-sheaths 
killed by the fungus are always pinkish-brown in color, while 
the rind, if tiie shoot has succeeded in producing any stick, is a 
deep bluish-gray. These colors are quite characteristic in canes 
afflicted with this disease and consequently are an aid to correct 
diagnosis. 

Careful cultural studies of diseased tissues disclosed the fact 
that iliau was caused by a fungus previously unknown. It 
belongs to the genus Gnnuionia, and was named Guomonia iliau. 
The vegetati\e or feeding mechanism of this fungus consists of 
minute branching threads (mycelium) wdiich grow through the 
cane tissues, destroying the living cells and absorbing their con- 
tents. The fungus produces two types of fruiting bodies, one in 
the form of pustules in the inner leaf-sheaths and stem ( Fig. A ). 
and the other in tlie form of tiny calabash-shaped bodies which 
are imbedded in the superficial leaf-sheaths with only their tips 
exposed ( I'ig. 15). b^normous numbers of black spores (Fig. C) 



KiK. .\. Melanconium iliau. 
The s))()rc nuisscs cxud- 
iiiir tlir(.iii;li riiptiirrs in 
till- riiul of a (lisiMscd 
slick. 




X25 



Fisr. 15. Gnomouia iliau. 
Till' tip.s of the fiuitiiiK 
l)Ofiips burst throusli tlu' 
surface of the loaf slieath 
and apijear as triim-atel 
cones sliirhtl.v tilted \ii>- 
ward. 



47 




X 1580 

Fig. C. Melanconium iliau. Matin e spoies Their 
walls appear brown when the spoies aie examined 
singly under the microscope by transmitted light. 
The contents of the spores consist of closely packed 
spherical globules. Occasionally a spore is met with 
which has become divided into two cells by a cross 
wall, as in the case of the one illustrated in the 
lower left-hand corner of the figure. 



are forced out of the pustules, while many smaller, colorless 
spores are produced in little sacks within the calabash-shaped 
body (Figs. D and E). All of these spores are capable of re- 
producing the fungus, the large black spores being adapted to 
dispersal by water, and the smaller, colorless spores to dispersal 
by air currents. The fungus mycelium arising from the spores 
usually becomes established in the soil, living on decaying vege- 
table matter, and from this point invades the tissues of the cane 
plant whenever opportunity offers. The spores and mycelium of 
this Gnomonia are very sensitive to sunlight, a brief exposure to 
the direct rays of the sun being sufficient to kill them. This fact 
is taken advantage of in our methods of controlling the disease. 
Iliau is in reality a leaf-sheath disease, and the methods of 
attack employed by the fungus make it a disease of young shoots 
only. As a rvile, this fungus gains entrance to the tissues of a 
cane shoot by forcing its way into the leaf-bases which join the 
stem at a point below the surface of the soil. Once inside the 
tissues, however, it works its way upward and inward, progress- 
ing from leaf-sheath to leaf-sheath and eventually into the stem. 
Having gained entrance to a leaf-sheath, it usually travels rap- 



48 




i(ll\- upward in ils tissues and nia\' extend tlu-ou.>,di nearly tlie 
entire sheath before it has forced an entrance at any point to tlie 
next leaf-sheath within. A leaf whose sheath has become af- 
fected with the fun- 
ii;"us soon dies as a re- 
sult, but does not 
drop away from the 
stem, its sheath beins; 
cemented very secure- 
ly to the leaf-sheaths 
within. 

Thus the fnn.^us 
works its way into the 
tii^'htly-packed roll of 
leaf-sheaths w h i c h 
surround the young- 
stem - ti]i, cementing 
these together into a 
rigid cone. The leaf- 
sheaths on a young 
shoot are naturally 
very firml\- attached 
to the stem by their 
bases, and when the 
fungus cements them 
together over the tip 
of the stem this ten- 
der member is sccure- 
h' confined within an 
inflexible s t r a i g h t 
jacket from which it 
camiot possibly es- 
cape. It usually dies 
long before the my- 
celium has reached it, 
because its natural 
growth and elonga- 
tion a r e forcibly 
stopped. 1 f one sjilits 
open \()ung shoots 
which are well within 
the grasp of the di--- 
easc, the\' often find 



X 70 



Fig. D. Gnomonia iliau. A 
one of till' I'niitiiii: Ijodi 
.stnictiii'c iind :iss(ici:itioii will 
liuiii ill the tissue <if the leaf 



tiuU tllTDUgh 

.sliowing its 
tlic iiiyre- 
lieatli. 



./<S^, 




XIOOO 



Kiu'. !•: 



Gnomonia iliau. 'I'liicc iisci or sporcsacs 
from the interior of a fructification. Kacli ascus 
i-imlains ciKlit two-celled, spiiulle-shaped spores. 



49 

that the stem lias Ijecome variousl_y bent and douljled n])(>n itself 
in striving" to continue its elongation. 

It very often happens, when a young shoot is attacked by the 
fungus, that the rapid elongation of the stem will carry its apex 
through the danger zone before the mycelium has progressed 
upward and inward sufficiently far to cement the leaf-sheaths 
together above it and head it off. In such cases the operations of 
the fungus are confined to a few leaf-sheaths, and may perhaps 
scar the stem slightly at one or two nodes, but the shoot will pass 
through the disease without suffering any considerable harm. 
Sticks which have thrown off the disease in this manner are very 
numerous in our cane fields. 

There are also infrequent cases where shoots have recovered 
from iliau, although at one time in a very serious plight ( Page 44, 
Fig. 2). Such sticks always have one or more joints near their 
base which are badly shriveled and blackened. These joints are 
always weak and brittle, and the stick is very liable to break off" 
here as it increases in length and weight. 

Iliau is a disease which thrives to best advantage during cool, 
damp weather. In fact, it is only under these conditions that it 
can make any appreciable headway. It is most abundant, there- 
fore, where these conditions most frecjuently obtain. In the 
fields of low elevation on the southerly slopes of the mountains 
fatal cases are of infrec[uent occurrence. A very destructive epi- 
demic occurred, however, in such a field at 400 feet elevation 
during the winter months of 1910-11. In all fields at high eleva- 
tions well-marked cases of iliau can usually be found at any sea- 
son of the year, and this is more or less true of most low-lying 
fields having a northern exposure. 

Iliau is therefore always present in, or at least not far removed 
from, every cane field in the Islands. If, while a field is carrying 
young cane, a period of cool, damp weather occurs, the disease 
is sure to make its presence apparent. Its spread through the 
fields, as well as the severity of the individual cases, will depend 
upon the continuation of the cool weather. With the return of 
warm weather, favorable to the growth of the cane, the disease 
is checked and many of the shoots only recently attacked will 
grow away from it. Severe epidemics of iliau are most frequent, 
therefore, in those localities where one or more months of con- 
tinuously cool weather are of yearly occurrence. 

As a general rule, it can l)e said that any shoot which shows a 
well-marked case of iliau is not worth saving by artificial treat- 
ment. All practical methods of combatting this disease must l)e 
in the nature of preventi\e measures rather than cures. 



51 

Thorough prei)aration of the soil previous to planting" is a very 
efficient measure against iliau. After a crop of cane has been 
harvested the soil is certain to be well filled with the mycelium 
and spores of the iliau fungus. Such of these as are permitted 
to remain continuously buried until the next crop has started will 
undoubtedly retain their vitality and serve to infect the plant 
cane whenever the weather conditions become favorable. Such 
spores and mycelium as are brought to the surface anrl exposed 
to the sun for only a few hours, however, are eifectually de- 
stroyed and can cause no further trouble. The more times the 
soil is worked over, therefore, the larger will be the percentage 
of spores which are brought to the surface and killed by being 
exposed to the sun. 

Another practice which yields good results as a precaution 
against iliau is early planting of all fields liable to become se- 
verely aiTected. The result aimed at is to secure a good stand 
of cane as far along as possible before cold, damp weather sets 
in. As long as the cane shoots remain clothed in a series of 
closely-clasping, succulent leaf bases which extend down into the 
ground, they are liable to fall prey to iliau if the necessary con- 
ditions for infection obtain. If the cane can pass through this 
critical period during warm weather it is fairly safe from the 
disease. 

The investigation of this disease disclosed the characters and 
habits of the responsible fungus, and our preventive measures are 
based on this knowledge. 

PRECAUTIONS AGATMST EPIDEMICS. 

There is no way of knowing just when some new disease is 
going to appear in epidemic form in our fields, but there are 
certain precautions which we may take to protect our crops. To 
have an epidemic disease among our plants, an aggressive para- 
sitic organism capable of causing the disease mvist be at hand. 
Such an organism may arise locally or it may be imported from 
some other country. 

Any incipient parasitic organism attacking a plant may at any 
time acquire such virulence as to render it capable of causing a 
destructive epidemic. Or a parasite may suddenly take to a new 
host plant with disastrous results for that plant. The coffee leaf 
disease, caused by a parasitic fungus, was first observed on a 
single estate in the hilly country of Ceylon. It spread, how- 
ever, with incredible rapidity and soon had extended its ravages 
throughout India, China, the Malav Peninsula, and every island 



ill the ( irieiit where coffee was grown.* The fungus causing 
this (hsease jjroved to he one that had i)rcviously occurred only 
on the leaves of a wild |)lant common in the forests of Ceylon 
and India. It is evident that some unknown influence acting on 
certain individuals of the original race of fungi taught them to 
live on the coffee plant. From this source there sprang a race 
which hy choice lived entirely on the leaves of the coft'ee. 

We recognize, therefore, that parasitic organisms, and even 
saprophytic organisms, may so change their habits as to suddenly 
render them dangerous enemies to our cane. To insure our 
crojis against such an event we are acciuiring an accurate knowl- 
edge of the habits and life-histories of all organisms to be found 
growing in intimate relation to the sugar cane or allied ])lants in 
Hawaii. Then if one of them should at any time become dan- 
gerous we shall know the most vulnerable point in its life-cycle 
and the best methods of combating its spread, 

l-'or most cultivated cr-ops there are now extant many organ- 
isms cai)able of producing epidemic diseases. These organisms 
are usually confined to certain countries by geographical bar- 
riers. It can be safely stated that, should one of these organ- 
isms be introduced into any country where its host plant is being 
cultivated, a serious epidemic is almost certain to follow. 

The first and most effective protection against the importation 
of disease-producing organisms is a strict ])lant quarantine. The 
second line of defense is perfected by obtaining a thorough 
knowledge of the disease to which our crops are subject in 
other countries. Then if one of these diseases appears, knowing 
its symptoms and cause, we shall be able to recognize it at once. 
The i)romi)t institution of adequate defensive measures will erad- 
icate any disease if it is discovered in time. To make our de- 
fensive measures adequate we must know tlie habits of the organ- 
ism causing the disease. 

The Hawaiian sugar planters fully recognize the dangers lurk- 
ing in other sugar-growing countries and support a very strict 
quarantine. They have taken out further insurance by sending 
their i)athologists to Fiji, Australia, Java and the Phili])pines to 
study the cane diseases of those countries. This latter procedure 
has i^laced at their disposal a knowledge of several very danger- 
ous cane diseases concerning which nothing had ever been pub- 
lished. 

When a very serious fungus disease broke out in ei)idemic 
form in the cane fields of Formosa we already knew the symj-)- 
toms and cause of the mal;idy. and the source from which they 

* If is rstiniiilcd that this discasi' ciiu.sihI a loss to tlic ciiloiiy of Ceylon alone 
of over $.">,(I00,0()0 per annum for several years. 



54 

had ini])ortecl it. In Formosa they did not become aware of 
the nature of the disease until it had gotten beyond their con- 
trol. There is not much danger of the Hawaiian sugar planters 
having a similar experience with this or any other of the numer- 
ous cane diseases known to occur in the sugar-growing coun- 
tries around the Pacilic. 



MANUFACTURE. 

By K. S. NoKRis. 



The so-called manufacture of raw cane sugar consists, in the 
simplest terms, of the recovery, in the form of small crystals, of 
the sugar which is in solution in the cane juice. This recovery 
involves, in general terms, the extraction of the juice from the 
cane by pressing, the elimination of those constituents of the 
juice that can be precipitated by heat and chemicals, the evap- 
oration of as nuich of the water as is necessary to allow the 
maximum quantity of sucrose to crystallize out, and the separa- 
tion of the sucrose crystals from the mother liquor. 

In this process of recovery it is the constant endeavor of the 
Hawaiian plantations to make use of the very best machinery 
and methods that are known. For the purpose of increasing 
the efficiency and economy of manufacture there is constantly 
being tried out on our plantations new processes and new forms 
of machinery invented here and in other cane sugar countries. It 
is in this way that Hawaii has earned the reputation of being in 
the lead over all other cane sugar countries in the manufacture 
of sugar as well as the growing of cane. A few quotations from 
authorities on this subject will bear me out in this statement. 
H. C. Prinsen (ieerligs, the well-known authority of Holland and 
Java, in his book, "The World's Cane Sugar Industry," says : 
"The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in the Hawaiian 
Islands is carried on in the very best possibe way. * * * Their 
factories are installed with the best machinery to be had." 

Profes.sor Geo. T. Surface of Yale University, in his treatise 
on the world's sugar industry, "The .^torv of .Sugar." says: 
"llawaii leads the cane-growing world in llie mechanical facili- 
ties of her mills." 

Mr. Noel Deerr, the T^nglish cane sugar exjjcrt. formerly tech- 
nologist at this Station, in his re])()rt to the Secretarv of Agricul- 



55 

ture of Cuba on the suj^ar industry of that island, uses the 
expression: "In the highly efficient and highly organized indus- 
try in Hawaii," in comparing the industry in that country and in 
this. 

In order to show how Hawaii compares with other cane sugar 
countries in the machinery equipment of its factories, and how 
rapidly new machinery and methods are adopted after they have 
been demonstrated to be improvements over the old forms, I will 
review the diii'erent divisions of the manufacture. 

It was demonstrated on these Islands that the highest results 
in the extraction of the juice from the cane cannot be obtained 
with less than four three-roller mills in the train. It is interest- 
ing to see how fast the use of the longer trains of mills spread 
after their increased efficiency had been proven. The following 
shows the percentage of the different kinds of mills in use during 
a period of six years : 

No. of 3-roller mil]8. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 

Four or more 11 17 20 22 32 42 

Three 74 68 65 63 55 47 

Less than three 15 15 15 15 13 11 

Cane mills with four or more three-roller mills were in use in 
Hawaii for several years before any other cane sugar country 
adopted them. Prinsen Geerligs. in his book mentioned above, 
referring to the work of the cane mills in Hawaii, says : "The 
extraction results thus arrived at are never met with elsewhere." 

Java probably stands next to Hawaii in the high efficiency of 
her cane sugar factories. A comparison of the average results 
obtained by all the cane mills of each country, in extracting the 
juice from the cane, shows that Haw^aii is far in the lead. The 
results in the table are expressed in percentages of the sugar in 
cane obtained in the juice, ordinarily called "extraction." 

, — Average Extraction — s 

Year. In Java. In Hawaii. 

1910 91.2 93.63 

1911 90.6 93.54 

1912 90.8 93.89 

1913 90.7 94.25 

1914 90.4 95.46 

Analogous figures for Cuba are not available, but from results 
which we have from a few of the leading plantations, we are 



57 

quite positive that the average extraction there is no better than 
in Java. Results from six of these phintations for the season 
of 1914 show an average extraction of 91. tlie maximum being 
93.5. The maximum in Hawaii runs over 98. This means that 
from the amount of cane that is anually ground in Hawaii the 
output of sugar is about 25,000 tons greater than would be ob- 
tained by the quality of milling that is done in Java or Cuba. 

As a further example of the rapidity with which new ideas in 
methods and machinery of proven value are adopted, I would 
refer to the case of a new method of grooving mill rollers in- 
vented by one of our factory superintendents. By grooving the 
rollers in this way it was found that a materially increased ex- 
traction could be obtained. The Messchaert deep juice-grooves 
were first tried at the beginning of the season of 1914. There 
are now in use 116 rollers grooved in this manner, in thirty of 
the forty-five mills in operation. 

Mr. Noel Deerr, in the Cuban report referred to above, makes 
the following statements in comparing the milling in the two 
countries : "The quality of mill work in general in Cuba does not 
reach the high standard to which the writer has been accustomed 
to in his Hawaiian experiences." "During the last few years 
the efforts in Hawaii to obtain efficiency at the milling plant have 
been attended with great success, and for the crop just finished 
the average extraction there is of the order of 95 per cent ; that 
is to say, the mills have extracted 95 per cent of the sugar in the 
cane. I have no complete statistics of the work in Cuban mills, 
but of twenty returns to which I have had access, only two 
reached as high as 94 per cent. If these twenty mills be taken 
as typical of the average, and they include some of the most 
recent as well as some of the older plants, I estimate the average 
extraction in Cuban mills as 91-92 per cent." 

Other instances of this keenness for improvements in our 
factories may be cited. During the season of 1913 a new form 
of settling tank was tried in one factory and found successful. 
It is now in use in nine other factories. The mOst reliable and 
effective means of increasing the steam and fuel economy in 
sugar factories has been by increasing the number of cells in the 
evaporator. In most cane sugar districts the evaporators usually 
have two or three cells. In Hawaii only one factory has a two- 
cell evaporator, and about fifty per cent of them use quadruple 
evaporators. Within the last few years nine factories have in- 
stalled large quadruple effects of the "Standard" type, this hav- 
ing been proved to be the form best adapted to our needs. Just 
before the beginning of the season of 1912 the Technologist of 
the Station called attention to the advantages to be derived bv a 



58 

further extension of the i)rineii)le of niulti])le effect eva])oration 
in the use of pre-heaters and j^re-evaporators. In order to make 
use of these suggestions elaborate and quite expensi\e changes 
were generally necessary, hut, ne\ertheless. ])re-heaters or pre- 
evaporators are now employed in ten factories, in 1908 a new 
form of vacuum pan was installed in one of the factories, the 
usual copper coils being replaced with a calandria. It proved to 
be efficient and now sixteen factories are using twenty-one calan- 
dria pans. 

The main activities of the I'lxperiment Station on the manu- 
facturing side of the industry are the inspection of the factories 
during the grinding season, advice and assistance in overcoming 
any special difficulties, investigations and reports on new pro- 
cesses of manufacture, compiling a weekly tabular report show- 
ing the results obtained by each factory during that ])eriod. and 
an annual report giving the manufacturing results for the sea- 
son and a discussion of them. 

Every season the Technologist of the Station inspects the 
work of a large proportion of the factories in the Territory, and 
reports are sent to the managers and directors of the planta- 
tions with comments on the quality of the work and suggestions 
toward improvements. The Station is also called upon for spe- 
cial investigations of ])articular parts of the manufacture. 

The opinion and advice of the Experiment Station is called 
for on any new processes that seem at all feasible. In this way 
it has several times saved the investment and loss of consider- 
able amounts of money in proposed processes that contained 
technical fallacies which made them unworkable. The Station 
also recently carried out an exi)erinienlal investigation on a 
manufacturing scale of an elaborate process covering a period of 
two years, for the Sugar Planters' Association. 

I^ach week practically every factory in operation on the 
Islands sends to the h^xperiment Station a report showing the 
composition of the various products and the weights of mate- 
rials handled. These figures are ])rinted on a sheet in tal)ular 
form and distributed with as little delay as possible to the ])lan- 
tations. Particular care is taken to have the figures correct and 
to present the important ones in a striking form. This report 
is eagerly scanned on the plantations by those in charge of the 
factory operations, and it furnishes an incentixe toward contin- 
ually renewed efforts tor iniproxcnienl m the work in oi'dcr to 
keep uj) to or increase their standard. 

The annual report on manufacture gi\es the results obtained 
by each factory for the season. These results are discussed and 
the factories compared on the basis of them. It is probably re- 



59 

ceived with greater interest on the plantations than any other 
pubHcation, and has contributed niateriaUy, during the last few- 
years, toward raising the standard of chemical control and of 
manufacture. 

A few average figures from the annual reports will serve to 
show the quality of the work done in Hawaiian factories : 





Bagasse 


Press 


Cake 




% Sugar 


Sugar per 

100 Sugar 

in Cane 


% Sugar 


Sugar per 

100 Sugar 

in Cane 


1910 






1.99 
1.76 




1911 


3 55 


fi 4.1 




1912 




3.43 6.11 
3.07 [ 5.75 
2.49 4.52 




19i;^ 


23 


1914 


24 









Final Molasses 


Sugar Eecovered 




Weight 

per 100 

Cane 


Gravity 
Purity 


Sucrose per 

100 Sugar 

in Cane 


Per 100 

Sugar in 

Juice 


Per 100 

Sugar in 

Cane 


1910 


2.80 


40.40 


7.12 


90.16 
91.41 
91.30 
90.12 
90.95 


84.46 


1911 


85.50 


1912 

1913 


85.66 
84.95 


1914 


86..56 



60 

l-\)r tin- items that arc Ict'l l)laiik in tliis tal)lc no tij^'-ures are 
available. 

In the rejiorl the {|ualit_\' of the work oi the dilterent factories 
for the season is compared on the l)asis of the percentage of 
sugar recovered of that possible to recover. The recoverable 
sugar cannot be calculated accurately from the figures available, 
so that this comparison is only approximate, but it gives a gen- 
eral idea of the efhciency of the manufacture on the plantations. 
For the 1914 season the factory efficiencies stood as follows : 

TOTAL HKCONKKV. 



Factory. Caleulatcd. 

7 m.2 

•A-A 93.8 

24 92.9 

■.',7 9t.4. 

in 98.8 

20 94.1 

.-54 93.4 

19 94..5 

:i(i 94.7 

30 94.6 

2 94.9 

K) 94.2 

4.') 95.3 

() 9.1.0 

4(i 92.7 

23 91.0 

15 92.G 

17 93.0 

41 93.1 

27 93.8 

3.') 91.9 

43 91.5 

3 93.3 

5 90.5 





Factory 


()l)t;iiiuMl. 


EflSciency, 


.S9.4S 


96.0 


89.94 


95.7 


88.73 


95.7 


90.02 


95.4 


89.27 


95.2 


89.40 


95.0 


88.72 


95.0 


89.54 


94.7 


89.08 


94.1 


88.87 


93.9 


89.09 


93.9 


88.40 


93.8 


89.17 


93.6 


88.33 


93.0 


86.18 


93.0 


94.47 


92.8 


85.74 


92.6 


86.34 


92.3 


85.90 


92.3 


85.14 


91.7 


83.24 


90.6 


82.52 


90.2 


84.05 


90.1 


80.93 


89.4 





61 






47 


92.0 


S2.2G 


89.4 


25 


■. 91.5 


81.24 


88.8 


40 


93.7 


83.16 


88.8 


38 


90.9 


80.28 


88.3 


31 


95 


83.44 

82.18 


87 8 


42 


93.6 


87.8 


32 


93.7 


82.26 


87.8 


12 


93.9 


79.58 


84.7 









CHEMISTRY. 

By F. S. Burgess. 

When the Experiment Station of the Hawaiian Sugar Plant- 
ers' Association was founded in 1895, the chief work of the 
Station for the first few years was largely of a chemical nature. 
Prior to the founding of this Station, which was the first agri- 
cultural experiment station to be instituted on these Islands, very 
little agricultural work of a scientific nature had been attempted 
here. 

In 1882 Captain C. E. Button, employed by the U. S. Geolog- 
ical Survey, had spent a year on the Islands studying, more or 
less superficially, the geography, geology, people, plants and ani- 
mals to be found. His report, covering 137 pages in the Annual 
Report of the U. S. Geological Survey for 1883, contained prac- 
tically all that was scientifically known concerning the lavas and 
more especially the soils of the Hawaiian Islands up to 1895. 
The Sugar Planters' Station was thus a pioneer in the field of 
scientific agriculture on these Islands. 

The work in chemistry quite naturally falls under three main 
heads or divisions: research work, fertilizer control work, and 
miscellaneous analytical work. These three divisions in the 
work were made early in the history of the Station, and for the 
sake of convenience have been quite closely adhered to up to the 
present time. We will now give a very brief resume of the 
work done under these three heads. 



62 

KKSKARCll WORK. 

The research work has l)een concerned largely with the phys- 
ical, chemical and biological aspects of the soils of these Islands, 
although other projects intimately connected with the manufac- 
ture of sugar and the growing of cane ha\e. from time to time, 
received attention. 

The early work on Hawaii soils was of interest not only to 
the ])lanters here, but also to soil scientists in other lands. No- 
where else do we find such a diversity of soil types, or such 
abnormal soil formations as are here encountered The rocks 
composing the whole mass of the archipelago, with the excep- 
tion of limestone and coral formations, are of com])aratively 
recent volcanic origin, and may be collectively termed basaltic 
lavas. By disintegrating and weathering these lavas have given 
us soils of \ery clitiferent types from those commonly met with 
elsewhere. They are primarily basic in composition, whereas 
those of North America, for example, are acidic. The basis or 
framework of Hawaiian soils are the oxides of iron and alumi- 
num, whereas the basis of mainland soils is silica. A glance at 
the following table will show these great ditTerences better than 
words can express them. These figures represent averages of 
large numbers of soil analvses made by the "absolute" or "fu- 
sion" method. The column marked "Mainland Soils" represents 
averages of soil analyses from almost every State in the Union 
and from provinces in Canada. The column labelled "Hawaiian 
Soils" gives average figures for over 300 composite samples of 
soil from the leading types on all of these islands. All of these 
analyses were made here and under similar conditions. 

Hawaiian Soils. ]\[ain1an(l Soils. 

Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Basil- constituents (5:5.71 7 18.080 

Acidic constituents ;?(i.4o8 S].()14 

FeoO.-j + AlsO;; 59.240 13.250 

CaO 0.698 0.830 

MgO 1.242 0.771 

KM 0.787 1 .(i22 

X:im( ) 1 .420 .2.229 

The table below shows difi'erences in the soils from the two 
areas as brought out on analysis by the "agricultural method" 
(hot digestion 10 hours in hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1.115 ). The 
figures here also re])resent averages of many doterminations. 



63 

Hawaiian Soils. Mainland Soils. 
Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Soluble matter 68.894 l.'j.llO 

Insoluble matter 31.106 84.890 

Soluble silica 15.308 7.840 

Insoluble silica 12.619 72.697 

It is of interest to state here that analyses of German soils 
were obtained from Professor Maercher, and of English soils 
from Professor Lawes. Averages of these compared fairly 
closely with those of American soils. 

The above data require little comment. It shows that the 
cardinal difference lies in the relative contents of iron and alu- 
mina and of silica. 

Physically, as would be expected, the soils differ greatly 
among themselves and also from American soils. The average 
speciiic gravity of Hawaiian soils is 2.87 as compared with about 
2.6 for American soils. The specific gravity of the former, free 
from combustible matter, is approximately 3.4. 

The soils of the Islands are, for convenience, classified or di- 
vided into two large groups, the "makai" or low-lying soils, and 
the "mauka" or upland soils. The mauka lands, at an elevation 
usually of 500 feet and above, receive by far the heaviest rain- 
fall. Their nitrogen content is thus about three times that of 
the low-lying makai lands nearer the sea. The following table 
gives the average chemical composition of these two soil groups, 
and represents averages of determinations on soils from all the 
islands : 

Makai Soils. Mauka Soils. 
Plant Food Element. Per Cent. Per Cent. 

CaO 0.474 0.268 

KgO 0.328 0.332 

P2O5 0.213 ' 0.238 

N 0.176 0.401 

The makai soils are largely sedimentary soils which have been 
brought down from the mountains by streams and otherwise, and 
are sometimes mixed with considerable quantities of coral. These 
soils are as a rule much richer and deeper than the mauka soils, 
and usually produce larger crops. 

Due to the preponderance of iron and aluminum, the phos- 
phoric acid in Hawaiian soils is in large part locked up so se- 



64 




curely that plants can use it with difficulty. Some soils, con- 
taining over 12,000 pounds P.^X-, per acre-foot, give less than 
twenty pounds in an immediately available form. 

The nitrogen also in most of our soils, although present in 
large amounts, has been found to be very resistant to rapid 
nitrification, and thus exists largely in unavailable forms. 

Potash, as it exists in Hawaiian soils, is present in a fairly 
available state. The same may be said of lime. 

Besides the large amount of laboratory work which has been 
done on soils brought directly from the field, many lysimeter and 
tub experiments have been conducted, both cropped with cane 
and fallowed. These tests have been made with the following 
objects in view: to note the effect on the growth of cane of 
applications of fresh and salt irrigation waters ; to determine the 
transpiration coefficients of cane at different stages of growth and 
the amounts of water required to produce cane of different va- 
rieties (pounds of water per pound of sugar) ; to determine the 
rates of nitrification of different forms of organic nitrogen in 
soils ; to determine the effect of various forms of lime and of 
the fertilizer salts on nitrification in mauka and makai soils ; to 
determine the effect of molasses, as a fertilizer, on nitrification. 

Much chemical work has further been completed on the com- 
position of the diff'erent varieties of cane and the amounts of 
plant foods which these different varieties withdraw from the 
soil per crop, and per ton of sugar produced. 

Since irrigation is of prime importance in many localities on 
these Islands, much chemical work has been done on the natural 
and well waters, both as regards their "alkali content" and also 
for dissolved plant foods present. 

Reference was made above to certain other fields of chemical 
research somewhat removed from soil and plant work. A 
lengthy and complete study was recently made on the composi- 
tion of evaporator scale which was found to be largely sulphate 
and phosphate of calcium. Boiling with a dilute solution of 
sodium carbonate for the sulphate scale, and Y^^fo to 1% hydro- 
chloric acid for phosphate scale, was recommended as a means 
of their removal. The manufacture of alcohol from waste mo- 
lasses was also thoroughly studied. Eight varieties of yeast 
from as many parts of the world were carefully tried out as to 
their respective fermentation efficiencies. 

About seven years ago Lahaina cane, which, by the way, is not 
a hardy variety^ being especially susceptible to any slight adverse 
condition, began to show signs of deterioration on some of these 
islands. The plant pathologists and entomologists have as yet 
been unable to associate anv disease or parasite which might 



66 

cause tliis stunted condition. Tiie Cheniicai l)i\ision is at pres- 
ent en^i^aged in makiuic^ a thorough study of the soils from these 
affected areas, with the liope of solving this most i)erj)lexing 
prohlem. 

FKKTILIZKR CONTROL WORK. 

Hawaii is a land of heavy fertilization. The annual fertilizer 
bill of these Islands amounts to more than $3,000,000. These 
fertilizers are i)urchased l)y the plantations or their agents from 




The use of clu'iiiiciil fertilizers is ;i liii;lily dcvclDixMi p:irt of susar 
ajjricultiirc in Ilinvaii. 



both local and mainland manufacturers. The objects of our 
chemical control work are as follows : 

1. To take official samples of fertilizers (particularly mixed 
fertilizers) purchased by the plantations of the H. S. P. A. 

2. To obtain from tiie j^lantations or their agents a cojiy of 
the guaranteed composition of these fertilizers. 

3. To analyze the samples, sending copies of their analyses to 
the ])lantations or their agents. 

4. in case the fcrliliz.crs arc l)cli)\\ the unarantee to accom- 



67 

pany the analysis reports with an estimate of the amount of 
rebate due the purchasers, as calculated from official valuations 
founded on market prices. 

The Pacific Coast fertilizer shij)ments are samj)led at San 
Francisco ; the inter-island shipments are sampled in Honolulu. 
Each tenth bag of a consignment is sampled and from the sample 
so obtained the two bottles are filled ; one being brought to the 
Experiment Station and the other to the plantation agency to be 
held in reserve in case the former sample should show a defi- 
ciency. After receiving the samples, the Experiment Station 
sends out printed forms to the plantation agencies, who fill in the 
guarantees of the fertilizers in question and return them. _( )ur 
agent in San Francisco carries out the sampling in the same way. 
the samples being forwarded to the Experiment Station and to 
the plantation agencies once each month. All analyses are made 
in the chemical laboratories of the H. S. P. A. Experiment 
Station, in Honolulu, by the adopted official methods for ferti- 
lizer analysis. The following is a resume of this work for the 
past nineteen years : 







Difference 


Average Rebate 




Fertilizer 


Between 


cer Fertilizer as 


Year 


Samples 


Valuation of 


Indicated by 




Received 


Manufacturer 


Analysis of 






and Station 


Samples 


1896 


7,3 


* 


$ 


1897 


no (lata 






1898 


< < a 






1899 


i i I i 






1900 


75 


12,000.00 


160.00 


1901 


189 


11,000.00 


58.20 


1902 


229 


9,000.00 


39.20 


190.3 


368 


4,900.00 


13.32 


1904 


333 


3,089.00 


9.28 


1905 


453 


5,635.00 


12.44 


1906 


315 


4,560.00 


14.47 


1907 


494 


8,977.00 


r 18.17 


1908 


610 


6,928 


11.35 


1909 


626 


3,642.00 


5.82 


1910 


569 


4,232.00 


9.53 


1911 


526 


2,564.00 


4.96 


]912 


437 


2,533.60 


5.54 


1913 


407 


1,771.45 


4.35 


191-4 


319 


2,027.42 


6.60 




5950 


$82,859.47 





69 

The above figures show that during the last fifteen years 5950 
fertilizers have been analyzed with a total indicated rebate to 
the plantations of over $80,000.00, or about ^1^55 10.00 per year. 

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYTICAL WORK. 

The plantations belonging to the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' 
Association send to this laboratory samples of all kinds whose 
chemical com])osition is desired. The analyses are made and the 
results submitted as soon as is compatible with accurate work. 
Among these miscellaneous samples the following predominate : 
molasses, sugars, cane juices, limestone, coral sand, lubricating 
and fuel oils, coal and ashes. On an average, about twenty mis- 
cellaneous samples per month are received and analyzed. 

The work of the chemical division is carried on by the chief 
chemist, who is also responsible for the research projects; two 
fertilizer chemists; one analyst, whose time is well taken up 
w'ith the miscellaneous samples, and three laboratory assistants. 
Changes are occasionally made, depending on the work. 



AGRICULTURE. 

CANE \'ARIETIES. 

With the adoption of rigid quarantine measures against the 
possibility of introducing injurious insects and plant diseases 
from foreign countries, it became necessary to forego the oppor- 
tunity of bringing in superior cane varieties from other cane- 
growing localities. Prior to this time several excellent canes had 
been introduced. One of them, the Demerara 1135, has gained 
considerable popularity, and its area is being rapidly extended. 

The local propagation of new seedling varieties was then re- 
sorted to as a relief from this situation. Sugar cane seedlings 
are in the vast majority of instances greatly inferior to the 
parent plants, and it is only by propagating them by the thou- 
sands and gradually weeding out the poorer ones that canes of 
commercial promise can be obtained. The following list gives 
the number of seedlings that ha\e been propagated by the Ex- 
periment Station : 

1906 A1)oiit 5,(500 seedling varieties 

1911 " 360 " 

1912 " 25 " " 

1913 " 3,684 " " 

1914 " 1,275 

1915 " 4,777 " " 

Total to (late 15,721 

The relation of this work to the plantations may be judged 
from a report prepared in 1913 on the question of varieties, from 
which we quote as follows : 

In recent years the Hawaiian plantations have devoted their atten- 
tion princii>ally to three varieties of sugar cane — the Kose Bamboo, the 
Lahaina, and the Yellovir Caledonia. 

Today Rose Bamboo has been largely dropi)ed, l<sss area is being 
devoted to Lahaina than formerly, greater acreages are planted to Yellovi' 
Caledonia than at any time since its appearance in the Islands, and there 
are a number of new varieties that are being tested and in some in- 
stances gradually extended. 

It is more especially the purpose of this re])ort to show the extent 
to which these new varieties are encroachig upon the so-called Standard 
Canes. No attempt is made to point out the comparative merits of the 
different varieties — comparative areas is the point under consideration. 

We find that in all there are about 145 different kinds of cane being 
grown on the plantations of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 
and that of these there are 42 varieties grown commercially, conceding 
that when an area of one acre or more is devoted to a cane it assumes 



-71 

a eertaiu coniniercial si,miificaiice. On this basis Hawaii lias 19 com 
iiieivial varieties, Kauai (i, Maui 9, and Uahu 33. 

In jioiiit of area Vellow Caledonia is more extensively cultivated 
than any other variety, it beinj> credited with over ]l(i,()OU acres for the 
J 914 and 1915 crops, aj!:ainst about 75,()U0 acres for Lahaina. 

From the crop of 1913 to that of 191"), Yellow Caledonia has a slightly 
increased area, while J^ahaina shows a decline of about 5U(1U acres. On 
each of the four islands, there is a reported decrease in Lahaina. On 
Oahu this amounts to nearly 40U() acres. A decrease in Yellow Cale- 
donia is shown on Hawaii; while the other three islands show increases 
in this variety, Oahu reporting a gain of about !^2U0 acres. We have no 
means of gauging the extent to whicdi the reported declines will be made 
up from short ratoons in 1915 now classified as 1,914 acres, and the 
figures should be acce])ted with this in view.i 

The next most inii)ortant variety is I) 1135, to which 271)9 acres have 
been planted for the 1915 crop. Striped Tip shows l'(3(iO acres, but this 
is a decline from 3740 in the 1913 crop, while D 1135 increases from 
829 acres, a gain of over 800 acres. 

Whereas Lahaina is reported from 25 plantations, and Yellow Cale- 
donia from 38, there are 41 plantations growing D 1135 either com- 
mercially or exi)erimenlally. Of these 41 there are 29 which have an 
area of one acre or more of this promising Demerara seedling; there 
are nine jdantations with areas of over a hundred acres each; there are 
three i)]iintations with over 5U0 acres, and one of these has over 1000 
acres. 

Anotlu'i- interesting jioint about the I) 1135 is that it is more evenly 
distril)uted throughout the four islands than any other variety. For 
the 1914 and 1915 croi)s, Oahu leads with 15()9 acres, Hawaii follows wdth 
1178, while Maui and Kauai report 963 and 484 acres respectively, mak- 
ing 4194 acres now under cultivation. 

Aside from the varieties thus far mentioned there are but two others 
which occuj)y areas of over 1000 acres — D 117 and Yellow Bambaa. 
It is significant to note that of the seven varieties of cane whicli occui)y 
areas of over one thousand acres there are only three which show well- 
defined extension between the 1913 and 1915 crops — Yellow Caledonia, 
D 1135 and D 117.-; Lnhaina, Kose Bamboo and Striped Tip all show 
decreased areas. 

On the other hand there are about thirteen new varieties which, 
though cultivated as yet on a comparatively small scale, have been ex- 
tended to an appreciable extent since the 1913 crop began. This fact 
makes these canes stand out prominently among the large number which 
have been undergoing ]>reliiniiiary tests for several years. They are 
listed as follows: 



1 Our present fiKiires show :!()(ll acres less for tlu- total ari>a of tlie U»l."> crop 
than for the crop of l!)i:j. 

"There is doubt regarding Yellow Haniboo. It is roiitincd mostly to one plan- 
tation of which the 1915 acres are uncertain. 



7Z 



Variety 



Acres Embraced in Crops of 



1913 



1914 



1915 



H20 

H 33 

TI 109 

H 146 

H 181 

H 197 

H2()2 

H227 

H 291 

H333 

H 335 

H 338 

Striped Mexican 3 



12 


128 


5 


1 


1 


13 




26 


62 


20 


39 


63 




1 


10 




20 


18 


1 


1 


10 




12 


119 




25 


15 




4 


60 


8 


. , 


18 




33 


30 


105 


146 


283 



Since all the other varieties in the Islands had from several to many 
years ' start on the Hawaiian seedlings, it may be well to see what is 
being done with those canes which have survived a long series of test- 
ing begun with some five thousand germinations secured about the year 
1905. In ai>proximately six years ' time these have been reduced to 
120, and 26 of them have proved sufficiently promising to be cultivated 
today in blocks extending from one acre upwards. 

To these twenty-six Hawaiian seedlings the H. S. P. A. plantations 
are now devoting 822 acres for the 1914 and 1915 crops. By far the 
greater portion of this is on the Island of Oahu, which contributes 699 
acres or 85% of the whole amount. Hawaii furnishes 103 acres and 
Kauai 18 acres, while Maui reports but 2 acres. 

Looking more closely into these figures we find that Ewa Plantation 
has a greater area in Hawaiian seedlings than all the rest of the Terri- 
tory put together, or 467 acres against 355 acres to express the fact in 
figures. Of the remaining 355 acres the Oahu Sugar Co. claims over 
half, so that these two plantations have 650 acres against 172 reported 
from the other plantations of the Association. 

Practically all the plantations have been active in preliminary work 
with these canes, and many of them are prepared to rapidly extend cer- 
tain varieties once the element of doubt is finally removed from these 
new seedlings. H. 227, H 146 and H 27 are the most widely distributed, 
each being reported in commercial or experimental areas from 18 planta- 
tions, while 10 or more plantations have each of the following under 
observation: H 20, H 25, H 33, H 68, H 69, H 99, H 109, H 135, H 151, 
H 197 and H 240. 

On the whole, the further we go, the more of a question this matter 
of varieties becomes. With two such excellent canes as Lahaina and 
Yellow Caledonia it might appear to some that undue stress is placed 
on the new seedlings. But aside from the desirability of replacing ex- 
cellent varieties with better ones, if they are to be had, we are con- 
fronted with the possibility, however remote it may be, that it may be 



3 Including Louisiana Striped, whicli is supposed to be tlie same variety. 



K _ 




75 

necessary to call others into p?ay to even maintain our present standards. 
Certain facts in connection with the Lahaina cane appeared in the 
August number of the Phnitrrx' Errord to which it may be well to make 
brief reference here in saying: 

" ■■'■ " ""' the records of other sugar cane growing countries show 
that the Bourbon (Lahaina) cane has run out in the majority of them 
and its cultivation has had to be largely curtailed or abandoned. The 
running out has occurred after very varying lengths of cultivation in 
different countries. It occurred in Queensland as long ago as ]872, 
Avhen the variety had been there in cultivation only a comparatively 
few years. Its effect commenced to be marked in the northern West 
Indian Islands early in the nineties of the last century, probably pre- 
ceded somewhat in Barbados, where its cultivation had been the most 
intensive amongst the West Indian colonies, and followed a little later 
in St. Vincent, where from about 3SS4 its cultivation had ceased to be 
intensive.^ 

Added to this we know that tlie Lahaina variety was once largely 
cultivated in Mauritius and Natal and there is evidence that boih Java 
and Cuba formally utilized it to a wide extent. 

The playing out of Lahaina cane on the Island of Hawaii is a fami- 
liar matter, and the difficulty experienced with Ihis variety in certain 
fields on Oahu is becoming generally known. 

We do not attempt to say that the cause of the trouble is the same 
in all these instances. We are not jiessimitic enough to predict that 
Lahaina will not continue to flourish as a standard cane in these Islands 
for many years to come, or that Yellow Caledonia would not continue 
to be a good substitute where Lahaina falls by the wayside. But be 
this as it may, the new varieties offer other baskets into which we may 
put some of our eggs, and they should be valued for this if for nothing 
else. 

Yet there is the hope that we have found, or that we may find, seed- 
lings which will ])rove better than either Y'ellow Caledonia or Lahaina 
when these canes are at their best. We have a good many figures of a 
more or less tentative character which encourage this belief. There are 
several points which will help us to realize it. In the first ])lace we 
must ajipreciate the fact that a variety may decline or may imjirove. 
Its properties may not be permanently fixed. Therefore in replacing a 
standard variety, even to a limited degree, we should not rely on one or 
two seedlings. In preliminary tests it is well not to endeavor to ascer- 
tain which of, say, fifteen seedlings is the most i)roniising one; but 
rather to pick out some fi^ e or more canes which may safely be extended 
to five-acre blocks. It is an easy matter to pass witU some of these to 
fifty-acre lots, and then if any of them are worth planting to fields of 
several hundred acres the fact will soon assert itself. The idea I mean 
to convey is that such work should be with the object of eliminating 
the poorer canes and carrying as many of the remainder as circum- 
stances warrant. But in mentioning these points I am doing little else 
than citing the examjde of the ]>lantations which have led in this work — 
an example that will no doubt be largely followed. 



1 Becord, Vol. IX, p. 468, or West Indian Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 2. 



76 



CULTIVATION. 



The methods of culti\ation in vog^uc in the Islands, the actual 
means of ijroducing a cane crop and l)rin<^ing it to the factories, 
ha\e heen developed by the plantation manajj^ers and their staffs 
of i)racticed field men. It is only in a small way that the Mxperi- 
nicnl Station has rendered service in this all-im])ortant work. 
I'",\en then such assistance has rested largely in noting an excel- 
lent method that has been developed on one ])lantation and sug- 
gesting its use in another locality where it could he used to ad- 
vantaije. 




FisclitinK weeds witli arsenic — a sni)i)ly tank (leliv(■l■^ 



<nlutii)n to the fields. 



The great \ariety of field conditions to be found throughout 
the Islands has resulted in widely varying agricultural practices, 
many of which have been especially formulated to meet existing 
circumstances. The field operations of the various localities 
have to a certain extent met attention from the Station, and a 
])ul)lication has been issued showing sonic seventy types of agri- 
cultural implements which are employed throughout different 
parts of the Islands. In many cases these tools are i)eculiar to 
Hawaii and have been designed to accom])lish some special work. 

I he ( )laa .Sugar C"om])any has. for insiance, adopted an orig- 
inal system of controlling the exce])tionally hea\y weed growth 
which is common in the districts of hea\y rainfall. This is ac- 
complished by the use of arsenic sprays between the rows of 
cane. According to the nature of the la.nd, the laborers are pro- 
vided with knapsack tanks to hold the arsenical solution, or else 
tanks are mounted on sleds which are drawn ])clwccn the cane 



77 

rows by animals. Arsenic solutions have for several years been 
utilized in open lands and orchards for killing weeds, but the 
plan to employ this means to combat foreign growth between 
the rows of a cultivated crop such as sugar cane was, we believe, 
first suggested by this Experiment Station. The whole matter 
of developing the idea and making a practical success of it was, 
however, the work of the Olaa Sugar Company. The method 
is simply an economical sul^stitute for a large amount of hand 
hoeing and implement cultivation which, in view of the water- 
soaked condition of the fields, was oftentimes a very unsatis- 
factory task. 




A spraying sled for use between the cane rows. 

The innovation is being taken up by several other plantations, 
but as conditions vary so from one place to another, it is ques- 
tionable to what extent it will eventually be adopted. The 
United States Department of Agriculture has become inter- 
ested in the scheme and is now conducting experiments as to its 
applicability in cultivating corn in Louisiana and Florida. So. 
in this, as in numerous instances, the applied science of Hawaii 
promises to be of more than local value. 

FIELD EXPERIMENTS. 



Field experiments hold an important part in the work of the 
Experiment Station. Take the use of fertilizers, for example. 
Present-day practices are in a large measure founded upon field 
testing. These trials are conducted, as a rule, on the plantations 



7^ 

and arc in ihc main C()("»])crati\c uiulcrtakinji^s l)ct\vcen the plan- 
tation managers and the agriculturists of the Station. Then, 
too. there is the \\'aii)i() Substation, an area of 135 acres, de- 
voted to Held experiments covering a range of subjects. Such 
matters as the proper formulas for fertilizer mixtures, the 
amount that can be profitably api)lie(l ])er acre, the best time 
for application, are some of the issues that can be ])roperly an- 
swered only by ])utting the (juestion to the land itself. b\ir- 
thermore, these questions must be asked clearly so that there may 
be no misunderstanding the reply, and this involves care in 
planning tlie tests and in designing the system of field plots to 
be employed. 

This work extends also to the problems of liming the land, 
and to the selection of the varieties of cane most suited to a given 
section, or in the finer points to methods for handling difl:'erent 
varieties to gain advantage from their \arying characteristics. 

(ireen manuring is another matter which must be handled 
experimentally in order to find some way of fitting this recog- 
nized means of upholding soil fertility to the rather adverse cir- 
cumstances which the sugar agriculture of Hawaii opposes to 
its use. In the first place, green manuring has been difiicult be- 
cause there a])pcared to be no green manuring crop that would 
resist the ever-present insect pests. After importing all avail- 
able leguminous plants and testing a hundred or more of them, 
some three or four remained which give promise, at least in cer- 
tain districts. 'I'hen the question arose of fitting them to the 
existing agriculture. The heavy irrigation expense, essential in 
some districts for cane, appeared prohibitive to a crop that re- 
J:urned no direct revenue. The expedient of finding a legume 
that would thrive between the cane rows was finally resorted to. 
and this plan is now under trial. Other roundabout means of 
restoring the heavily-cropped soils are also being investigated. 
The idle fallowing of land finds no ])lace where acres are scarce 
and the upbuilding of soils l)ecomes the task of making repairs 
under full steam ahead. 

The agriculture df Hawaii abounds with conditions of this 
kind — the need of developing unique methods to surmount unicjue 
difficulties has long since become a i)art of the day's work on 
the sugar ])lantations of Hawaii. 



PUBLICATIONS. 



The coniplclcd investijjations of the Experiment Station of 
the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association are pul)lished as tech- 
nical bulletins. Seventy-eight of these have been issued uj) to 
the present time, embracing some four thousand pages in all. 
Tliese are di\ided among three series as follows: 

Agriculture and chemistry. 44 bulletins. 

Entomology, h^ bulletins (21 vols.). 

Plant pathology and physiology. 12 bulletins, 
i'hcse publications are sent to members of the Hawaiian 
Sugar Planters' Association; responsible employees on the H. S. 
P. A. plantations ; to seventy federal and state experiment sta- 
tions, and similar institutions in the United States ; twenty fed- 
eral departments or bureaus in Washington. D. C. ; eighteen col- 
leges and universities of high standing in the United States and 
abroad ; fifteen museums and organizations for scientific research 
in the United States and foreign countries ; twenty-one foreign 
experiment stations; and fifty-seven ofinces or departments of 
foreign governments. In addition to this they are also sent, for 
purposes of review or abstracting, to se\enteen leading scientific 
journals dealing with sugar matters and the various sciences 
which have an economic licaring thereon. Coi)ies are also sent 
regularly to scientists in the United States and al)road who are 
actively engaged i.i work of a kindred nature. 
The following is a list of these bu.lktins: 

, .l(/riciiltiiral and Chcuiical Scries. 

A. Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands — Walter Maxwell. 

]->. Miscellaneous Pai)ers — C. F. Eckart. 

1. Reports for the Year 1893 — Walter Maxwell. 

2. Reports for the Year 1S97— Walter Maxwell. 
4. Reports for the Year 1898— Walter Maxwell. 
.^. Reports for the Year 1899 — Walter Maxwell. 
(k Reports for the Year 1900— Walter Maxwell. 

7. Re])()rts for the Year 1901 — R. E. Rlouin. 

8. Reports for the Year 1902— C. V. I<:ckart. 

9. Reports for the Year 1903— C. 1-. lukart. 

10. X'arieties of Cane — C. V. l^ckart. 

11. Recent Experiments with Saline Irrigation — C. E. l^ckart. 

12. Com])arative Analyses of Varieties of Cane — C. E. Eckart. 

13. b'iebl I'^xpcriments with Sugar Cane — C. E. E.ckart. 

14. Irrigation l''xi)eriments of 1905 — C. F. l-'ckart. 



82 

15. I'crtilizer Experiments. 1897-1905 — C. F. Eckart. 

U). Tlie Influence of Stri])])in,e^ on the Yield of Cane and Sugar 

— C. I'. I-:ckart. 

17. Comparative Tests with X'arieties of Cane — C. F. Eckart. 

IS. llawaiian Waste Molasses — S. S. Peck. 

19. Lysimeter Experiments — C. I'\ Eckart. 

20. A Tlieory of the I'^xtraction of Sugar from Massecuites — 

Noel I3eerr. 

21. Evaporator Scale — S. S. Feck. 

22. A Theory of tlie Extraction of juice hy Milling — Noel 

Deerr. 

23. Use of I'~ormal(lchyde Solution in .Sugar Mills — R. S. 

Norris. 

24. The Deterioration of Sugars on Storage — Deerr and Norris. 

25. Results from Stripping Experiments — C. F. Eckart. 

26. Varieties of Cane with Special Reference to Nomenclature 

— Deerr and Eckart. 

27. Total Solids in Mill Products hy the Refractometer — S. S. 

I'eck. 

28. Fermentation of Hawaiian Molasses — Peck and Deerr. 

29. The Action of Soluble Fertilizers on Cane Soils — C. F. 

Eckart. 

30. The Influence of the Structure of the Cane on Mill Work 

in Sugar Factories — Noel Deerr. 

31. The Determination of Sucrose in Cane Molasses — Noel 

Deerr. 

32. Bagasse Analysis — Determin.ation of Sugar and Moisture — 

R. S. Norris. 

33. Sulphate Scale in ICvaporators — S. S. Peck. 

"34. Some IJio-Chemical Investigations of Hawaiian Soils, with 
Special Reference to h\M-tilizing with Molasses — S. S. 
Peck. 

35. The hnersion of Cane Sugar Untler the Influence of Acids 

and Neutral Salts — Noel Deerr. 

36. The Effect of High Temperatures en Cane Sugar in Solu- 

tion — Deerr. 

37. Lvsimeter Experiments — S. S. Peck. 

38. The Milling of Cane Considered in Relation to the \'olume 

( )ccui)ied by tlie I-'iber — Deerr. 

39. The Influence of Molasses on Nitrification in Cane .Soils — 

Peck. 

40. lieat of Comlnistion of IJagasse from llawaiian Cane — 

R. S. Norris. 

41. ( )n Available Sugar and a System of Control in the lioiling 

Mouse — Deerr. 



83 

42. An Experimental Study in Multii)!e Effect Evaporation — 

Noel Deerr. 

43. The Heat Balance of a Cane Sugar Factory — Noel Deerr. 

44. The Implements of the Industry — H. P. Agee. 

Entomological Scries. 

1. Leaf Hoppers and the Natural Enemies. 

Introduction. 

Part 1. Dryinidae — R. C. L. Perkins. 

2. Epipropidae — R. C. L. Perkins. 

3. Stylopidae — R. C. L. Perkins. 

4. Pipunculidae — R. C. L. Perkins. 

5. Forficulidae, Syrphidae, and Hemerobiidae — 

F. W. Terry. 

6. Mymaridae, Platygasteridae — R. C. L. Perkins. 

7. Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera - — O. H. 

Swezey. 

8. Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Trichogrammidae — R. 

C. L. Perkins. 

9. Leaf Hoppers — Hemiptera — G. W. Kirkaldy. 
10. Dryinidae, Pipunculidae, Supplementary — R. 

C. L. Perkins. 

2. Notes on Some Fijian Insects — F. Muir. 

3. Leaf Hoppers — Supplement (Hemiptera) — G. W. Kir- 

kaldy. 

4. Parasites of Leaf Hoppers — Perkins; Kirkaldy. 

5. The Sugar Cane Leaf Roller {Omiodes accepta), with an 

Account of Allied Species and Natural Enemies — O. H. 
Swezey. 

6. The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Bud Moth ( Ercuiictis fhwis- 

trata), with an Account of Some Allied Species and 
Natural Enemies — O. H. Swezey. 

7. Army Worms and Cut Worms on Sugar Cane in the Ha- 

waiian Islands — Swezey. 

8. A Bibliography of Sugar Cane Entomology — G. W. Kir- 

kaldy. 

9. On Some New Species of Leaf Hopper (Pcrkinsiclla) on 

Sugar Cane — Muir. 

10. Parasites of Insects Attacking Sugar Cane — R. C. L. Per- 

kins. 

11. Parasites of the Family Dryinidae- — R. C. L. Perkins. 

12. On Some New Species of Leaf Hoppers — Kirkaldy and 

Muir. 



84 
Patholoijical Scries. 

1. The Inspection and Disinfection of Cane Cuttings — N. A. 

Cohl). 

2. Preliminary Notes on the Root Diseases of Suj,Mr Cane in 

I lawaii — Lewton-ISrain. 

3. Third Report on Gumming of the Sugar Cane — N. A. Cobb. 

4. Some I^lements of Plant Pathology — N. A. Cobb. 

5. h\nigus Maladies of Sugar Cane — N. A. Cobb. 

6. Fungus Maladies of Sugar Cane — N. A. Cobb. 

7. A Lecture on Rind Disease of the Sugar Cane — L. Lewton- 

lirain. 

8. i^ed Rot of the Sugar Cane Stem — L. Lewton-Brain. 

9. The Bacterial Flora of Flawaiian Sugar — L. Le\vton-F)rain 

and Deerr. 

10. Diseases of the Pineapple — L. D. Larsen. 

11. lliau. an luidemic Cane Disease — H. L. Lyon. 

12. I'Tmgi Parasitic upon Insects Injurious to Sugar Cane — 

A. T. Speare. 



HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION 
OFFICERS AND TRUSTEES FOR 1915 

J. M. DOWSETT President 

A. W. T. BOTTOMLET .Vice-President 

W. O. SMITH Secretary-Treasurer 

L. J. WAEEEN Assistant Secretary- Treasurer 

J. W. WALDKON Auditor 

E. D. TENNEY F. A. SCHAEFEE 

E. F. BISHOP J. F. HACKFELD 

J. P. COOKE F. M. SWANZY 



EXPERIMENT STATION COMMITTEE 

F. M. SWANZY, Chairman 

E. D. TENNEY CHAS. E. HEMENWAY 

A. GAETLEY J. F. C. HAGENS 

J. W. WALDEON A. W. T. EOTTOMLEY 

L. J. WAEEEN, Secretary 



EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF 
E. P. AGEE .Director 

E. C. L. PEEKINS Consulting Entomologist 

A. EOEBELE Consulting Entomologist 

OTTO H. SWEZBY Entomologist 

F. MXJIE Associate Entomologist 

H. T. OSBOEN Assistant Entomologist 

H. L. LYON Pathologist 

AUDEN T. SPEAEE J4.ssistant Pathologist 

E. S. NOEEIS Sugar Technologist 

W. E. McAIiLEP Assistant Chemist 

P. S. EUEGESS Chemist 

F. E. WEETHMUELLEE Assistant Chemist 

EAEL C. LANE Assistant Chemist 

J. F. MELANPHY Fertilizer Sampler 

W. P. NAQTJIN Agriculturist 

L. D. LAESEN Associate Agriculturist 

H. C. BEEWEE Assistant Agriculturist 

W. E. E. POTTEE Illustrator 

H. B. CAMPBELL JSuslness Agent 






.- --;;!, v>-.»-,.i 




